A numerical study of interacting buoyant cooling-tower plumes

The compact design of mechanical cooling towers necessitates that the plumes are issued into the cross-wind in close proximity. An improved understanding of the interaction of adjacent plumes is therefore required for better design of such cooling towers, which may lead to a reduction in their environmental impact. This paper presents the results of a numerical investigation into the interaction of two adjacent plumes in a cross-flow. The numerical model simulates small-scale wind tunnel experiments of a cooling tower arrangement. The computations are performed for three-dimensional, turbulent, buoyant and interacting plumes, and for a single plume for comparison. Two double-source arrangements, namely, tandem and side-by-side, with respect to the oncoming atmospheric boundary layer are considered. A low Reynolds number k–ε turbulence model is used with two discretisation schemes, hybrid and QUICK, and the results are compared. Comparisons are also made with the experimental results. The results show that the interaction of side-by-side plumes is dominated by the interaction of the rotating vortex pairs within the plumes. A tandem source arrangement leads to early merging and efficient rise enhancement. Comparisons of the predicted results with experimental data show good agreement for the plume rise.     

Stackless Power Plant

When the 230-MW Volklingen power plant entered service in August 1982, it became the first power plant in Europe to desulfurize 100 percent of the flue gas without bypass. The FGD system forms an integral part of the cooling tower, and the flue gas is discharged through the tower. There is no stack. Mathematical models for the dispersal of the mixed emissions from the cooling tower have now been confirmed by readings of ground level concentrations. The dispersion pattern was recorded as part of exhaustive emission readings, which included measurements from powered gliders. It was shown that the dispersal of the desulfurized flue gas encounters more favorable atmospheric conditions than would be the case if it were discharged separately from a stack. One major element is the thermal thrust of the exhaust from the cooling tower. This approach to flue gas discharge reduces costs considerably, eliminating the need for reheating the gases to the 72° C required in West Germany for conventional FGD systems discharging through a stack.     

Evaluation of the reactive and optics model of emissions (ROME)

The reactive and optics model of emissions (ROME) is a reactive plume visibility model that simulates the potential atmospheric impacts of stack emissions. We present here an evaluation of the ability of ROME to simulate several plume physical and chemical variables, using an experimental data base that consists of a total of 40 case studies from four field programs. The evaluation variables include plume height, horizontal width, NO_x and SO₂ maximum concentrations, NO₂/NO_x concentration ratio at the plume centerline, and plume-to-sky radiance ratios. Three algorithms used to simulate plume dispersion in ROME were compared: (1) the empirical Pasquill–Gifford–Turner (PGT) scheme, (2) a first-order closure (FOC) algorithm and (3) a second-order closure (SOC) algorithm that simulates the instantaneous plume dimensions.The plume height results show a correlation of 0.82 between simulated and measured values and a gross error that is 13% of the mean measured value. For plume horizontal dispersion, the second-order closure algorithm produces a moderate correlation (0.54) and a small bias (5% of the mean measured value) in comparison with the field data. Although the PGT scheme also demonstrates moderate correlation with the measurements, it produces a negative bias by significantly underestimating plume horizontal dispersion. The first-order closure algorithm overestimates plume width and shows the least correlation (with the measurements) of the three dispersion algorithms.For the NYSEG data set where coordinated measurements of stack emissions, meteorology at plume height and plume characteristics were available, the SOC algorithm provides better correlations for NO_x concentrations, NO₂/NO_x ratios and plume visibility than the FOC and PGT algorithms. For plume visibility, the SOC algorithm shows a correlation of 0.96 at 405 nm, the wavelength where the plume was visible, and it simulates no visible plume at the other wavelengths (550 and 700 nm).A comparison of ROME simulations with those of the plume visibility model PLUVUE II shows that ROME, with the SOC algorithm, performs better for all variables.     

Progression of natural attenuation processes at a crude-oil spill site: I. Geochemical evolution of the plume

A 16-year study of a hydrocarbon plume shows that the extent of contaminant migration and compound-specific behavior have changed as redox reactions, most notably iron reduction, have progressed over time. Concentration changes at a small scale, determined from analysis of pore-water samples drained from aquifer cores, are compared with concentration changes at the plume scale, determined from analysis of water samples from an observation well network. The small-scale data show clearly that the hydrocarbon plume is growing slowly as sediment iron oxides are depleted. Contaminants, such as ortho-xylene that appeared not to be moving downgradient from the oil on the basis of observation well data, are migrating in thin layers as the aquifer evolves to methanogenic conditions. However, the plume-scale observation well data show that the downgradient extent of the Fe2+ and BTEX plume did not change between 1992 and 1995. Instead, depletion of the unstable Fe (III) oxides near the subsurface crude-oil source has caused the maximum dissolved iron concentration zone within the plume to spread at a rate of approximately 3 m/year. The zone of maximum concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) has also spread within the anoxic plume. In monitoring the remediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated ground water by natural attenuation, subtle concentration changes in observation well data from the anoxic zone may be diagnostic of depletion of the intrinsic electron-accepting capacity of the aquifer. Recognition of these subtle patterns may allow early prediction of growth of the hydrocarbon plume.     

Viability of natural attenuation in a petroleum-contaminated shallow sandy aquifer

This study focused on evaluating and quantifying the potential of natural attenuation of groundwater at a petroleum-contaminated site in an industrial area of a satellite city of Seoul, Korea. Groundwater at the study site was contaminated with toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (TEX). Eight rounds of groundwater sampling and subsequent chemical analyses were performed over a period of 3 years. The groundwater quality data suggests that TEX concentrations at this site have been decreasing with time and that the TEX plume is at a quasi-steady state. Trend analysis, changes in mass flux and plume area also confirmed that the TEX plume has reached a quasi-steady state. The proportion of the total attenuation attributable to biodegredation has decreased over the monitoring period while contribution of other attenuating processes, such as dilution or dispersion, has increased. Based on the calculated attenuation rates, it would take more than 20 years to clean up the site by natural attenuation alone.     

Study of using microfiltration and reverse osmosis membrane technologies for reclaiming cooling water in the power industry.

A study of using dual membrane technologies, microfiltration (MF) and reverse osmosis (RO), for reclaiming blowdown of the cooling tower was conducted at ZJK power plant, Hebei province, China. The study shows that the combined MF-RO system can effectively reduce water consumption in the power industry. The results indicate that MF process is capable of producing a filtrate suitable for RO treatment and achieving a silt density index (SDI) less than 2, turbidity of 0.2 NTU. The water quality of RO effluent is very good with an average conductivity of about 40 micros/cm and rejection of 98%. The product water is suitable for injection into the cooling tower to counteract with cooling water intrusion. After adopting this system, water-saving effectiveness as expressed in terms of cycles of concentration could be increased from 2.5-2.8 times to 5 times.     

Natural attenuation of xenobiotic organic compounds in a landfill leachate plume (Vejen,Denmark)

Demonstration of natural attenuation of xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) in landfill leachate plumes is a difficult task and still an emerging discipline within groundwater remediation. One of the early studies was made at the Vejen Landfill in Denmark in the late 1980s, which suggested that natural attenuation of XOCs took place under strongly anaerobic conditions within the first 150 m of the leachate plume. This paper reports on a revisit to the same plume 10 years later. Within the strongly anaerobic part of the plume, 49 groundwater samples were characterized with respect to redox-sensitive species and XOCs. The analytical procedures have been developed further and more compounds and lower detection limits were observed this time. In addition, the samples were screened for degradation intermediates and for toxicity. The plume showed fairly stationary features over the 10-year period except that the XOC level as well as the level of chloride and nonvolatile organic carbon (NVOC) in the plume had decreased somewhat. Most of the compounds studied were subject to degradation in addition to dilution. Exceptions were benzene, the herbicide Mecoprop (MCPP), and NVOC. In the early study, NVOC seemed to degrade in the first part of the plume, but this was no longer the case. Benzyl succinic acid (BSA) was for the first time identified in a leachate plume as a direct indicator, and as the only intermediate of toluene degradation. Toxicity measurements on solid phase-extracted (SPE) samples revealed that toxic compounds not analytically identified were still present in the plume, suggesting that toxicity measurements could be helpful in assessing natural attenuation in leachate plumes.     

Natural attenuation of trichloroethene and its degradation products at a lake-shore site

Subsurface contamination by trichloroethene (TCE) was detected at a Michigan National Priorities List (NPL) site in 1982. The TCE plume resulted from the disposal of spent solvent and other chemicals at an industrial facility located in the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. TCE degradation products of three dichloroethene (DCE) isomers, vinyl chloride (VC) and ethene were present. The plume was depleted of oxygen and methanogenic at certain depths. Transects of the plume were sampled by slotted auger borings the year after the TCE plume was first discovered. Water samples were also taken from lake sediments to a depth of 12 m about 100 m offshore. Later samples were taken along the shoreline of the lake with a hand-driven probe. Later in 1998 water was taken from sediments about 3-m from the shoreline. The average concentration of each chemical and net apparent base coefficient between appropriate pairs of transects between the lower site and lakeshore were calculated. Loss rates were then calculated from an analytical solution of the two-dimensional advective-dispersive-reactive transport equation. Net apparent rate coefficients and a set of coupled reaction rate equations were used to extract the apparent loss coefficients. This study showed the field evidence for natural attenuation of TCE.     

Application of in situ biosparging to remediate a petroleum-hydrocarbon spill site: field and microbial evaluation

In this study, a full-scale biosparging investigation was conducted at a petroleum-hydrocarbon spill site. Field results reveal that natural attenuation was the main cause of the decrease in major contaminants [benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX)] concentrations in groundwater before the operation of biosparging system. Evidence of the occurrence of natural attenuation within the BTEX plume includes: (1) decrease of DO, nitrate, sulfate, and redox potential, (2) production of dissolved ferrous iron, sulfide, methane, and CO(2), (3) decreased BTEX concentrations along the transport path, (4) increased microbial populations, and (5) limited spreading of the BTEX plume. Field results also reveal that the operation of biosparging caused the shifting of anaerobic conditions inside the plume to aerobic conditions. This variation can be confirmed by the following field observations inside the plume due to the biosparging process: (1) increase in DO, redox potential, nitrate, and sulfate, (2) decrease dissolved ferrous iron, sulfide, and methane, (3) increased total cultivable heterotrophs, and (4) decreased total cultivable anaerobes as well as methanogens. Results of polymerase chain reaction, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, and nucleotide sequence analysis reveal that three BTEX biodegraders (Candidauts magnetobacterium, Flavobacteriales bacterium, and Bacteroidetes bacterium) might exist at this site. Results show that more than 70% of BTEX has been removed through the biosparging system within a 10-month remedial period at an averaged groundwater temperature of 18 degrees C. This indicates that biosparging is a promising technology to remediate BTEX contaminated groundwater.     

Validation of the digital opacity compliance system under regulatory enforcement conditions

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Emission Measurement Center in conjunction with EPA Regions VI and VIII, the state of Utah, and the U.S. Department of Defense have conducted a series of long-term pilot and field tests to determine the accuracy and reliability of a visible opacity monitoring system consisting of a conventional digital camera and a separate computer software application for plume opacity determination. This technology, known as the Digital Opacity Compliance System (DOCS), has been successfully demonstrated at EPA-sponsored Method-9 "smoke schools", as well as at a number of government and commercially operated industrial facilities. Results from the current DOCS regulatory pilot study demonstrated that, under regulatory enforcement conditions, the average difference in opacity measurement between the DOCS technology and EPA Reference Method 9 (Method 9) was 1.12%. This opacity difference, which was computed from the evaluation of 241 regulated air sources, was found to be statistically significant at the 99% confidence level. In evaluating only those sources for which a nonzero visible opacity level was recorded, the     

The variability and intrinsic remediation of a BTEX plume in anaerobic sulphate-rich groundwater

Data from long-term groundwater sampling, limited coring, and associated studies are synthesised to assess the variability and intrinsic remediation/natural attenuation of a dissolved hydrocarbon plume in sulphate-rich anaerobic groundwater. Fine vertical scale (0.25- and 0.5-m depth intervals) and horizontal plume-scale (>400 m) characteristics of the plume were mapped over a 5-year period from 1991 to 1996. The plume of dissolved BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene) and other organic compounds originated from leakage of gasoline from a subsurface fuel storage tank. The plume was up to 420 m long, less than 50 m wide and 3 m thick. In the first few years of monitoring, BTEX concentrations near the point of leakage were in approximate equilibrium with non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) gasoline. NAPL composition of core material and long-term trends in ratios of BTEX concentrations in groundwater indicated significant depletion (water washing, volatilisation and possibly biodegradation) of benzene from residual NAPL after 1992. Large fluctuations in BTEX concentrations in individual boreholes were shown to be largely attributable to seasonal groundwater flow variations. A combination of temporal and spatial groundwater quality data was required to adequately assess the stationarity of plumes, so as to allow inference of intrinsic remediation. Contoured concentration data for the period 1991 to 1996 indicated that plumes of toluene and o-xylene were, at best, only partially steady state (pseudo-steady state) due to seasonal groundwater flow changes. From this analysis, it was inferred that significant remediation by natural biodegradation was occurring for BTEX component plumes such as toluene and o-xylene, but provided no conclusive evidence of benzene biodegradation. Issues associated with field quantification of intrinsic remediation from groundwater sampling are highlighted. Preferential intrinsic biodegradation of selected organic compounds within the BTEX plume was shown to be occurring, in parallel with sulphate reduction and bicarbonate production. Ratios of average hydrocarbon concentrations to benzene for the period 1991 to 1992 were used to estimate degradation rates (half-lives) at various distances along the plume. The estimates varied with distance, the narrowest range being, for toluene, 110 to 260 days. These estimates were comparable to rates determined previously from an in situ tracer test and from plume-scale modelling.     

Migration and natural fate of a coal tar creosote plume: 1. Overview and plume development

A volume of sand containing coal tar creosote was emplaced below the water table at CFB Borden to investigate natural attenuation processes for complex biodegradable mixtures. Coal tar creosote is a mixture of more than 200 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic compounds and phenolic compounds. A representative group of seven compounds was selected for detailed study: phenol, m-xylene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, 1-methylnaphthalene, dibenzofuran and carbazole. Movement of groundwater through the source led to the development of a dissolved organic plume, which was studied over a 4-year period. Qualitative plume observations and mass balance calculations indicated two key conclusions: (1) compounds from the same source can display distinctly different patterns of plume development and (2) mass transformation was a major influence on plume behaviour for all observed compounds.     

A three-dimensional plume rise model for dry and wet plumes

We present a plume rise model which can be applied to situations with arbitrary wind fields and source exit directions and to both dry and wet plumes. The model is an integral model which considers plume properties averaged over the plume cross section. It is validated by means of water tank, wind tunnel, and field experiments (stacks and cooling towers).     

Biogeochemical processes at the fringe of a landfill leachate pollution plume: potential for dissolved organic carbon, Fe(II), Mn(II), NH4, and CH4 oxidation

Various redox reactions may occur at the fringe of a landfill leachate plume, involving oxidation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), CH4, Fe(II), Mn(II), and NH4 from leachate and reduction of O2, NO3 and SO4 from pristine groundwater. Knowledge on the relevance of these processes is essential for the simulation and evaluation of natural attenuation (NA) of pollution plumes. The occurrence of such biogeochemical processes was investigated at the top fringe of a landfill leachate plume (Banisveld, the Netherlands). Hydrochemical depth profiles of the top fringe were captured via installation of a series of multi-level samplers at 18, 39 and 58 m downstream from the landfill. Ten-centimeter vertical resolution was necessary to study NA within a fringe as thin as 0.5 m. Bromide appeared an equally well-conservative tracer as chloride to calculate dilution of landfill leachate, and its ratio to chloride was high compared to other possible sources of salt in groundwater. The plume fringe rose steadily from a depth of around 5 m towards the surface with a few meters in the period 1998-2003. The plume uplift may be caused by enhanced exfiltration to a brook downstream from the landfill, due to increased precipitation over this period and an artificial lowering of the water level of the brook. This rise invoked cation exchange including proton buffering, and triggered degassing of methane. The hydrochemical depth profile was simulated in a 1D vertical reactive transport model using PHREEQC-2. Optimization using the nonlinear optimization program PEST brought forward that solid organic carbon and not clay minerals controlled retardation of cations. Cation exchange resulted in spatial separation of Fe(II), Mn(II) and NH4 fronts from the fringe, and thereby prevented possible oxidation of these secondary redox species. Degradation of DOC may happen in the fringe zone. Re-dissolution of methane escaped from the plume and subsequent oxidation is an explanation for absence of previously present nitrate and anaerobic conditions in pristine groundwater above the plume. Stable carbon isotope (delta13C) values of methane confirm anaerobic methane oxidation immediately below the fringe zone, presumably coupled to reduction of sulfate, desorbed from iron oxide. Methane must be the principle reductant consuming soluble electron-acceptors in pristine groundwater, thereby limiting NA for other solutes including organic micro-pollutants at the fringe of this landfill leachate plume.     

Microcosm studies of microbial degradation in a coal tar distillate plume

Investigation of a groundwater plume containing up to 24 g l(-1) phenolic compounds suggested that over a period of nearly 50 years, little degradation had occurred despite the presence of a microbial community and electron acceptors within the core of the plume. In order to study the effect of contaminant concentration on degradation behaviour, laboratory microcosm experiments were performed under aerobic and anaerobic conditions at four different concentrations obtained by diluting contaminated with uncontaminated groundwater. The microcosms contained groundwater with total phenols at ca. 200, 250, 660 and 5000 mg l(-1), and aquifer sediment that had been acclimatised within the plume for several months. The microcosms were operated for a period of 390-400 days along with sterile controls to ascertain whether degradation was microbially mediated or abiotic. Under aerobic conditions, degradation only occurred at concentrations up to 660 mg l(-1) total phenols. At phenol concentrations below 250 mg l(-1) a benzoquinone intermediate, thought to originate from the degradation of 2,5-dimethylphenol, was isolated and identified. This suggested an unusual degradative pathway for this compound; its aerobic degradation more commonly proceeding via catecholic intermediates. Under anaerobic conditions, degradation only occurred in the most dilute microcosm (total phenols 195 mg l(-1)) with a loss of p-cresol accompanied by a nonstoichiometric decrease in nitrate and sulphate. By inference, iron(III) from the sediment may also have been used as a terminal electron acceptor, in which case the amount of biologically available iron released was calculated as 1.07 mg Fe(III)/g of sediment. The study shows that natural attenuation is likely to be stimulated by dilution of the plume.     

Identification of a reactive degradation zone at a landfill leachate plume fringe using high resolution sampling and incubation techniques

Vertical small-scale variation in phenoxy acid herbicide degradation across a landfill leachate plume fringe was studied using laboratory degradation experiments. Sediment cores (subdivided into 5 cm segments) were collected in the aquifer and the sediment and porewater were used for microcosm experiments (50 experiments) and for determination of solid organic carbon, solid-water partitioning coefficients, specific phenoxy acid degraders and porewater chemistry. Results from a multi-level sampler installed next to the cores provided information on the plume position and oxygen concentration in the groundwater. Oxygen concentration was controlled individually in each microcosm to mimic the conditions at their corresponding depths. A highly increased degradation potential existed at the narrow plume fringe (37.7 to 38.6 masl), governed by the presence of phenoxy acids and oxygen. This resulted in the proliferation of a microbial population of specific phenoxy acid degraders, which further enhanced the degradation potential for phenoxy acids at the fringe. The results illustrate the importance of fringe degradation processes in contaminant plumes. Furthermore, they highlight the relevance of using high-resolution sampling techniques as well as controlled microcosm experiments in the assessment of the natural attenuation capacity of contaminant plumes in groundwater.     

Microbiological analysis of multi-level borehole samples from a contaminated groundwater system

A range of bacteriological, geochemical process-related and molecular techniques have been used to assess the microbial biodegradative potential in groundwater contaminated with phenol and other tar acids. The contaminant plume has travelled 500 m from the pollutant source over several decades. Samples were obtained from the plume using a multi-level sampler (MLS) positioned in two boreholes (boreholes 59 and 60) which vertically transected two areas of the plume. Activity of the microbial community, as represented by phenol degradation potential and ability to utilise a range of substrates, was found to be influenced by the plume. Phenol degradation potential appeared to be influenced more by the concentration of the contaminants than the total bacterial cell numbers. However, in the areas of highest phenol concentration, the depression of cell numbers clearly had an effect. The types of bacteria present were assessed by culture and DNA amplification by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Bacterial groups or processes associated with major geochemical processes, such as methanogenesis, sulphate reduction and denitrification, that have the potential to drive contaminant degradation, were detected at various borehole levels. A comparative molecular analysis of the microbial community between samples obtained from the MLS revealed the microbial community was diverse. The examination of microbial activity complemented those results obtained through chemical analysis, and when combined with hydrological data, showed that MLS samples provided a realistic profile of plume effects and could be related to the potential for natural attenuation of the site.     

Processes controlling the distribution and natural attenuation of dissolved phenolic compounds in a deep sandstone aquifer

Processes controlling the distribution and natural attenuation (NA) of phenol, cresols and xylenols released from a former coal-tar distillation plant in a deep Triassic sandstone aquifer are evaluated from vertical profiles along the plume centerline at 130 and 350 m from the site. Up to four groups of contaminants (phenols, mineral acids, NaOH, NaCl) form discrete and overlapping plumes in the aquifer. Their distribution reflects changing source history with releases of contaminants from different locations. Organic contaminant distribution in the aquifer is determined more by site source history than degradation. Contaminant degradation at total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations up to 6500 mg l(-1) (7500 mg l(-1) total phenolics) is occurring by aerobic respiration NO3-reduction, Mn(IV)-/Fe(III)-reduction, SO4-reduction, methanogenesis and fermentation, with the accumulation of inorganic carbon, organic metabolites (4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid), acetate, Mn(II), Fe(II), S(-II), CH4 and H2 in the plume. Aerobic and NO3-reducing processes are restricted to a 2-m-thick plume fringe but Mn(IV)-/Fe(II)-reduction, SO4-reduction, methanogenesis and fermentation occur concomitantly in the plume. Dissolved H2 concentrations in the plume vary from 0.7 to 110 nM and acetate concentrations reach 200 mg l(-1). The occurrence of a mixed redox system and concomitant terminal electron accepting processes (TEAPs) could be explained with a partial equilibrium model based on the potential in situ free energy (deltaGr) yield for oxidation of H2 by specific TEAPs. Respiratory processes rather than fermentation are rate limiting in determining the distribution of H2 and TEAPs and H2 dynamics in this system. Most (min. 90%) contaminant degradation has occurred by aerobic and NO3-reducing processes at the plume fringe. This potential is determined by the supply of aqueous O2 and NO3 from uncontaminated groundwater, as controlled by transverse mixing, which is limited in this aquifer by low dispersion. Consumption to date of mineral oxides and SO4 is, respectively, <0.15% and 0.4% of the available aquifer capacity, and degradation using these oxidants is <10%. Fermentation is a significant process in contaminant turnover, accounting for 21% of degradation products present in the plume, and indicating that microbial respiration rates are slow in comparison with fermentation. Under present conditions, the potential for degradation in the plume is very low due to inhibitory effects of the contaminant matrix. Degradation products correspond to <22% mass loss over the life of the plume, providing a first-order plume scale half-life >140 years. The phenolic compounds are biodegradable under the range of redox conditions in the aquifer and the aquifer is not oxidant limited, but the plume is likely to be long-lived and to expand. Degradation is likely to increase only after contaminant concentrations are reduced and aqueous oxidant inputs are increased by dispersion of the plume. The results imply that transport processes may exert a greater control on the natural attenuation of this plume than aquifer oxidant availability.     

Natural attenuation of chlorinated ethene compounds: model development and field-scale application at the Dover site

A multi-dimensional and multi-species reactive transport model was developed to aid in the analysis of natural attenuation design at chlorinated solvent sites. The model can simulate several simultaneously occurring attenuation processes including aerobic and anaerobic biological degradation processes. The developed model was applied to analyze field-scale transport and biodegradation processes occurring at the Area-6 site in Dover Air Force Base, Delaware. The model was calibrated to field data collected at this site. The calibrated model reproduced the general groundwater flow patterns, and also, it successfully recreated the observed distribution of tetrachloroethene (PCE), trichloroethene (TCE), dichloroethylene (DCE), vinyl chloride (VC) and chloride plumes. Field-scale decay rates of these contaminant plumes were also estimated. The decay rates are within the range of values that were previously estimated based on lab-scale microcosm and field-scale transect analyses. Model simulation results indicated that the anaerobic degradation rate of TCE, source loading rate, and groundwater transport rate are the important model parameters. Sensitivity analysis of the model indicated that the shape and extent of the predicted TCE plume is most sensitive to transmissivity values. The total mass of the predicted TCE plume is most sensitive to TCE anaerobic degradation rates. The numerical model developed in this study is a useful engineering tool for integrating field-scale natural attenuation data within a rational modeling framework. The model results can be used for quantifying the relative importance of various simultaneously occurring natural attenuation processes.     

新型离心式脱硫塔气液两相流数值模拟

利用FLUENT软件和SIMPLE算法对新型旋流脱硫塔的气液两相流场进行了数值模拟。计算中气相采用了RSM湍流模型,颗粒相采用了Lagrange坐标系下的随机轨道模型。分析结果表明,气相流场具有强旋流特性;喷射液滴的直径、喷淋量和烟气流速影响其在塔内的分布:喷射液滴粒径越大、喷射量越小、烟气流速越大,入口段降温越少;塔体上方截面平均浓度随液滴粒径的增加而降低,随液气比的增加而增加,随烟气流速的增加会先增加至最高值然后降低。喷淋液滴在其他运行参数不变时,平均粒径范围为0.5～1 mm,会对进口烟气起到较好的净化与降温的作用,并使塔体上方喷淋液滴在截面z=4.15 m处浓度分布均匀且覆盖率高;在保证液滴粒径较小时,通过降低烟气流速或增加喷淋量可提高液滴喷淋覆盖率,使得烟气与喷淋充分接触。计算得到的气相流场分布与实测值吻合较好,证明了数学模型的合理性,为进一步优化分离器结构提供了可靠依据。