Wildlife and coal development: An overview

This paper briefly reviews the changes which have occurred in the past three hundred years in the public's attitudes toward our Nation's natural resources, particularly the wildlife resources. It discusses how these changing attitudes have contributed to today's surface coal mine reclamation laws which require that the disturbed land be restored to a level of productivity equal to or greater than that which occurred before mining. This paper stresses the need to manage each reclamation site on an ecosystem basis, recognizing the interrelationships of all the resource components. This paper emphasizes both the fundamental importance of the holistic approach to mine site reclamation and the responsibility that the wildlife biologist has to see to it that wildlife habitat considerations are incorporated into each phase of the reclamation plan. Brief management considerations are given to three unique reclamation habitat types; riparian, agriculture and forest.     

基于InVEST模型的三峡库区(重庆段)生境质量时空演变分析

为识别生境质量优劣的具体区域,揭示土地利用变化下生境质量时空演变特征,对集大农村、大库区于一体的三峡库区(重庆段)开展生境质量研究.以2000、2010及2020年土地利用数据为基础,运用InVEST模型对三峡库区(重庆段)2000—2020年生境质量进行定量评价,并结合转移矩阵方法挖掘了生境质量退化的具体区域.结果表...     

A comparison of land-sharing and land-sparing strategies for plant richness conservation in agricultural landscapes

Strategies for conserving plant diversity in agroecosystems generally focus on either expanding land area in non-crop habitat or enhancing diversity within crop fields through changes in within-field management practices. In this study, we compare effects on landscape-scale species richness from such land-sharing or land-sparing strategies. We collected data in arable field, grassland, pasture, and forest habitat types (1.6 ha sampled per habitat type) across a 100-km2 region of farmland in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, USA. We fitted species-area relationships (SARs) for each habitat type and then combined extrapolations from the curves with estimates of community overlap to estimate richness in a 314.5-ha landscape. We then modified these baseline estimates by adjusting parameters in the SAR models to compare potential effects of land-sharing and land-sparing conservation practices on landscape richness. We found that species richness of the habitat types showed a strong inverse relationship to the relative land area of each type in the region, with 89 species in arable fields (66.5% of total land area), 153 in pastures (6.7%), 196 in forests (5.2%), and 213 in grasslands (2.9%). Relative to the baseline scenario, major changes in the richness of arable fields produced gains in landscape-scale richness comparable to a conversion of 3.1% of arable field area into grassland habitat. Sensitivity analysis of our model indicated that relative gains from land sparing would be greatest in landscapes with a low amount of non-crop habitat in the baseline scenario, but that in more complex landscapes land sharing would provide greater gains. These results indicate that the majority of plant species in agroecosystems are found in small fragments of non-crop habitat and suggest that, especially in landscapes with little non-crop habitat, richness can be more readily conserved through land-sparing approaches.     

Changes in Wildlife Communities Near Edges

Abstract: Wildlife managers and land managers have traditionally considered edges as beneficial to wildlife because species diversity generally increases near habitat edges. Explanations for this edge effect include greater vegetative complexity at edges or the simultaneous availability of more than one landscape element. However, edges can have negative consequences for wildlife by modifying distribution and dispersal and by increasing incidence of nest predation and parasitism Edges also may be detrimental to species requiring large undisturbed areas because increases in edge generally result in concommitant reductions in size and possible isolation of patches and corridots. Thus, both wildlife and land managers should be cautious when describing the benefits of edges to wildlife: particularly when dealing with species that require forest interiors.
Changes in wildlife communities associated with habitat edges are not easily assessed because defining edge species and measuring edge dimensions can be difficult in field studies Also, there is no general consensus as to how edge effect is best measured. Well-designed long-term studies of edges in various landscapes are needed (1) to better understand the positive and negative impacts of edges on wildlife communities, guilds, or key species, and (2) to effectively quantify edge effect and thereby develop management recommendations to improve the quality of edges for wildlife. Additional studies of edge effect are timely because greater amounts of edge will continue to be created in future landscapes due to extensive agriculture and other land-use-practices, and because developing knowledge in conservation biology and landscape ecology will facilitate multidisciplinary approaches to edge and landscape management for the benefit of wildlife.     

A Framework for Evaluating the Effects of Human Factors on Wildlife Habitat: the Case of Giant Pandas

Abstract: To address the complex interactions between humans and wildlife habitat, we developed a conceptual framework that links human factors with forested landscapes and wildlife habitat. All the components in the framework are integrated into systems models that analyze the effects of human factors and project how wildlife habitat would change under different policy scenarios. As a case study, we applied this framework to the Wolong Nature Reserve in Sichuan Province (southwestern China), the largest home of the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ). We collected ecological and socioeconomic data with a combination of various methods ( field observations, aerial photographs, government documents and statistics, interviews, and household surveys) and employed geographic information systems and systems modeling to analyze and integrate the data sources. Human population size has increased by 66% and the number of households in the reserve has increased by 115% since 1975, when the reserve was established. During the same period, the quality and quantity of the giant panda habitat dramatically decreased because of increasing human activities such as fuelwood collection. Systems modeling predicted that under the status quo, human population in the reserve would continue to grow and cause more destruction of the remaining panda habitat, whereas reducing human birth rates and increasing human emigration rates would lower human population size and alleviate human impacts on the panda habitat. Furthermore, our simulations and surveys suggested that policies encouraging the emigration of young people would be more effective and feasible than relocating older people in reducing human population size and conserving giant panda habitat in the reserve.     

Calculating Biologically Accurate Mitigation Credits: Insights from the California Tiger Salamander

Abstract:  Current conservation mitigation plans often fail to ensure full in-kind habitat replacement for endangered species, which suggests the need for improved methods for calculating mitigation credits. A simple, yet biologically meaningful method for calculating mitigation credits would be to let the number of mitigation credits assigned to a parcel of land scale with the reproductive value of the individuals occupying that parcel. This can be accomplished by dividing the population into 2 or more subdivisions with different reproductive values, calculating the densities of these subdivisions as a function of one or more habitat parameters, and then forming a weighted sum of these densities such that each density distribution is weighted by the reproductive value of its respective subdivision of the population. This weighted sum is the density distribution of reproductive value, and by integrating it over a particular parcel, one can determine the mitigation value of that parcel. We carried out this procedure for a population of California tiger salamanders ( Ambystoma californiense ), with distance from breeding site as our habitat parameter and the 3 visually identifiable age classes (adults, juveniles, and metamorphs) as our population subdivisions. This led to a density distribution of reproductive value that decreased exponentially with increasing distance from a breeding site. Mitigation strategies derived from this function will be more likely to ensure the persistence of California tiger salamander populations than current approaches, which assign all land within 1.6 km of a breeding site the same mitigation value. Use of the density distribution of reproductive value as a basis for mitigation plans is a procedure that can be applied to all endangered species, and it should improve the quality of mitigation decisions.     

Habitat and population modelling of roe deer using an interactive geographic information system

Management of German roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations is a challenge for wildlife managers and foresters because population densities are difficult to estimate in forests and forest regeneration can be negatively affected when roe deer density is high. We describe a model to determine deer population densities compatible with forest management goals, and to assess harvest rates necessary to maintain desired deer densities. A geographic information system (GIS) was used to model wildlife habitat and population dynamics over time. Our model interactively incorporates knowledge of field biologists and foresters via a graphical user interface (GUI). Calibration of the model with deer damage maps allowed us to evaluate density dependence of a roe deer population. Incorporation of local knowledge into temporally dynamic and spatial models increases understanding of population dynamics and improves wildlife management.     

Designing the Masoala National Park in Madagascar Based on Biological and Socioeconomic Data

Abstract: Conservation biologists have developed powerful tools for reserve selection and design over the past two decades, yet seldom are protected areas actually designed on scientific grounds. Using fundamental biological and socioeconomic principles of conservation science, we designed a new protected area and its multiple-use zone on the Masoala Peninsula in the humid forest zone of Madagascar. The explicit design criteria determined the data gathered for the work, which included (1) spatial distribution and quality of habitat, (2) the areas and species at greatest risk, (3) the relationship between environmental gradients and species distributions, (4) current and predicted human settlement and land and resource use, and (5) the economic potential of natural forest management as an alternative to deforestation. We used a geographic information system to integrate these data layers and applied the design criteria to develop a park proposal that balanced human and wildlife needs. The proposal won the approval of local residents, and a national decree in 1997 designated 2100 km² of rainforest and three satellite marine reserves as the Masoala National Park, with a surrounding multiple-use zone of approximately 1000 km². The new park is Madagascar's largest protected area and protects more lowland (<400 m) humid forest habitat than the entire reserve system combined, a significant step forward in conserving a globally important ecoregion. Consideration of local needs and the national economy was a key element in gaining approval for the Masoala Park. Such an approach toward reserve design could be applied elsewhere to improve chances of establishing and maintaining protected areas over the long term.     

Public Preferences for Compensatory Mitigation of Salt Marsh Losses: a Contingent Choice of Alternatives

Abstract:  Human activities continue to eliminate or degrade wetlands that provide rich habitat for many species. Compensatory mitigation, including creation of new wetlands, restoration of previously degraded wetlands, or preservation of existing wetlands, is one policy option that seeks to maintain no net loss of wetland habitat. Public support of wetland mitigation is essential because the public incurs the cost for many mitigation projects in the form of higher taxes. Therefore, public preferences should be considered when decisions are made about wetland mitigation options. We used a contingent-choice survey in Rhode Island to identify factors affecting public support for different types of compensatory wetland mitigation. Results were based on 640 survey responses. The amount of wetland lost during the original development project had no significant effect on the preferred mitigation alternative. Preferences for preservation, restoration, and no-action alternatives varied according to respondents' gender, education, and income. Certain general considerations applied, however, regardless of mitigation type. Respondents were willing to incur increases in taxes and fees for most mitigation projects. The larger the mitigation project and the lower the cost, the more likely it was to gain public support. The presence of endangered species contributed to public support, but less significantly than public access. Public access can be critical to public support, particularly if the size of the wetland is small or the cost is high. If the cost of providing public access, such as a boardwalk or viewing tower, is relatively small, the gain in public support for mitigation expenditures may well allow a substantial expansion of the area involved in mitigation projects and thus a greater increase in the amount of habitat conservation.     

Ecological Costs of Livestock Grazing in Western North America

Livestock grazing is the most widespread land management practice in western North America. Seventy percent of the western United States is grazed, including wilderness areas, wildlife refuges, national forests, and even some national parks. The ecological costs of this nearly ubiquitous form of land use can be dramatic. Examples of such costs include loss of biodiversity; lowering of population densities for a wide variety of taxa; disruption of ecosystem functions, including nutrient cycling and succession; change in community organization; and change in the physical characteristics of both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Because livestock congregate in riparian ecosystems, which are among the biologically richest habitats in arid and semiarid regions, the ecological costs of grazing are magnified in these sites. Range science has traditionally been laden with economic assumptions favoring resource use. Conservation biologists are encouraged to contribute to the ongoing social and scientific dialogue on grazing issues.     

Modelling potential habitat for cougars in midwestern North America

Cougars (Puma concolor) are of considerable interest to wildlife biologists and the general public in midwestern North America, yet no researchers have modelled potential habitat in the region. We created a model of potential cougar habitat in 9 midwestern states using geospatial data, expert-opinion surveys, the analytical hierarchy process, and a GIS. About 8% of the study region contained highly favorable habitat (with favorability scores ≥75%) for cougars; the states of Arkansas (19%) and Missouri (16%) contained the highest proportions of potentially favorable habitat. We identified 6 large (≥2500 km² in size), contiguous areas of highly favorable habitat for cougars. Model testing procedures indicated a valid model when compared to an independent set of cougar locations, a null dataset, and similar studies. Our model is useful as a planning tool to proactively address future human-cougar conflicts should cougars re-colonize the Midwest via subadult dispersal.     

Assessing Risk to Birds from Industrial Wind Energy Development via Paired Resource Selection Models

When wildlife habitat overlaps with industrial development animals may be harmed. Because wildlife and people select resources to maximize biological fitness and economic return, respectively, we estimated risk, the probability of eagles encountering and being affected by turbines, by overlaying models of resource selection for each entity. This conceptual framework can be applied across multiple spatial scales to understand and mitigate impacts of industry on wildlife. We estimated risk to Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) from wind energy development in 3 topographically distinct regions of the central Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania (United States) based on models of resource selection of wind facilities (n = 43) and of northbound migrating eagles (n = 30). Risk to eagles from wind energy was greatest in the Ridge and Valley region; all 24 eagles that passed through that region used the highest risk landscapes at least once during low altitude flight. In contrast, only half of the birds that entered the Allegheny Plateau region used highest risk landscapes and none did in the Allegheny Mountains. Likewise, in the Allegheny Mountains, the majority of wind turbines (56%) were situated in poor eagle habitat; thus, risk to eagles is lower there than in the Ridge and Valley, where only 1% of turbines are in poor eagle habitat. Risk within individual facilities was extremely variable; on average, facilities had 11% (SD 23; range = 0–100%) of turbines in highest risk landscapes and 26% (SD 30; range = 0–85%) of turbines in the lowest risk landscapes. Our results provide a mechanism for relocating high‐risk turbines, and they show the feasibility of this novel and highly adaptable framework for managing risk of harm to wildlife from industrial development. Evaluación del Riesgo para las Aves por el Desarrollo de Energía Eólica Industrial Mediante Modelos de Selección de Recursos Pareados.     

人类活动对上海市生物多样性空间格局的影响

为了揭示人类活动对城市化地区生物多样性空间格局的影响及其景观生态学机制,文章将上海市作为研究对象,选择3个人类活动指标、3个主要类型生态系统的4个景观特征指标与8个生物多样性指标,探讨人类活动强度、野生动植物生境景观特征及生物多样性三者之间的相互关系。结果显示,人口增长和城市扩张对上海市生物多样性的空间格局产生了显著影响。在上海地区,人口密度较高、交通较为发达的区域,湿地和农田的景观连续性较低,生物多样性也较低,外来入侵物种丰度较高。这表明在快速城市化过程中,人类活动通过改变野生动植物栖息地景观质量来对区域生物多样性产生影响。本研究还显示,经济发展并非一定对生物多样性具有负面影响。因此,在保持经济发展的同时,通过优化产业结构与加强生物多样性管理,可实现对生物多样性有效保护。     

Suitability of Amphibians and Reptiles for Translocation

Abstract:  Translocations are important tools in the field of conservation. Despite increased use over the last few decades, the appropriateness of translocations for amphibians and reptiles has been debated widely over the past 20 years. To provide a comprehensive evaluation of the suitability of amphibians and reptiles for translocation, we reviewed the results of amphibian and reptile translocation projects published between 1991 and 2006. The success rate of amphibian and reptile translocations reported over this period was twice that reported in an earlier review in 1991. Success and failure rates were independent of the taxonomic class (Amphibia or Reptilia) released. Reptile translocations driven by human–wildlife conflict mitigation had a higher failure rate than those motivated by conservation, and more recent projects of reptile translocations had unknown outcomes. The outcomes of amphibian translocations were significantly related to the number of animals released, with projects releasing over 1000 individuals being most successful. The most common reported causes of translocation failure were homing and migration of introduced individuals out of release sites and poor habitat. The increased success of amphibian and reptile translocations reviewed in this study compared with the 1991 review is encouraging for future conservation projects. Nevertheless, more preparation, monitoring, reporting of results, and experimental testing of techniques and reintroduction questions need to occur to improve translocations of amphibians and reptiles as a whole.     

Rural Development and Sustainable Wildlife Use in Peru

Abstract: Tropical conservation has seen a convergence between conservation projects and rural development, with both approaches promoting participation of local people in sustainable resource use. But there is a discord between rural development and sustainable use of wildlife. Implementing more sustainable use of wildlife usually means decreased economic benefits for rural people, especially over the short term. In contrast, rural-development projects are often mandated to generate income for rural people over the short term. We examined this dilemma through an integrated economic and harvest analysis of the costs associated with converting unsustainable hunting to more sustainable hunting in the Peruvian Amazon. Our analysis suggests that a change in hunting practice would have significant economic costs for rural people and would result in a 36% decrease in the economic benefits they derive from wildlife hunting. In contrast, converting unsustainable hunting to more sustainable hunting would have little effect on meat markets in the urban center of Iquitos, Peru, with markets losing only 3.6% of their economic value. There would be no economic costs for the international pelt trade. If rural-development projects absorb the short-term economic costs, they can help people convert unsustainable wildlife use to more sustainable use and assist rural people in realizing the long-term benefits of more sustainable hunting. But many rural-development projects would need to change their mandate for short-term income generation to incorporate the realities of sustainability.     

太子河洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度评估

基于对太子河流域鱼类及栖息地的调查研究,选择该流域的优势种洛氏鱥(Phoxinus lagowskii)作为指示生物,建立洛氏鱥幼鱼对水深、流速、溶解氧、总溶解颗粒物和河岸带植被指数的栖息地适宜度曲线,并借鉴河道内流量增量法计算各采样点河段的洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数。结果表明:洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数在太子河上游较高(>0.5),中游次之(0.2-0.5),下游较低(<0.2)。洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数与10项栖息地调查指标和土地利用类型的相关性分析表明:太子河流域内限制洛氏鱥幼鱼生存的因素不是水文条件,而是河流水质及河岸带等环境因素;洛氏鱥幼鱼栖息地适宜度指数受人类活动影响较大,随着太子河中下游人类开发强度加大,洛氏鱥栖息地质量呈下降趋势。     

Declines in Woodland Salamander Abundance Associated with Non-Native Earthworm and Plant Invasions

Abstract:  Factors that negatively affect the quality of wildlife habitat are a major concern for conservation. Non-native species invasions, in particular, are perceived as a global threat to the quality of wildlife habitat. Recent evidence indicates that some changes to understory plant communities in northern temperate forests of North America, including invasions by 3 non-native plant species, are facilitated by non-native earthworm invasion. Furthermore, non-native earthworm invasions cause a reduction in leaf litter on the forest floor, and the loss of forest leaf litter is commonly associated with declines in forest fauna, including amphibians. We conducted a mark-recapture study of woodland salamander abundance across plant invasion fronts at 10 sites to determine whether earthworm or plant invasions were associated with reduced salamander abundance. Salamander abundance declined exponentially with decreasing leaf litter volume. There was no significant relationship between invasive plant cover and salamander abundance, independent of the effects of leaf litter loss due to earthworm invasion. An analysis of selected salamander prey abundance (excluding earthworms) at 4 sites showed that prey abundance declined with declining leaf litter. The loss of leaf litter layers due to non-native earthworm invasions appears to be negatively affecting woodland salamander abundance, in part, because of declines in the abundance of small arthropods that are a stable resource for salamanders. Our results demonstrate that earthworm invasions pose a significant threat to woodland amphibian fauna in the northeastern United States, and that plant invasions are symptomatic of degraded amphibian habitat but are not necessarily drivers of habitat degradation.     

Assessment of traditional rights,local interference and natural resource management in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary

An assessment of human interference in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) showed huge dependence of local communities on forest fringes. KWLS is under active consideration as a national park because of its unique flora and fauna. Studies have evidenced habitat destruction and successional changes in the area because of ongoing unsustainable harvesting and logging. The present study provides an integrated approach towards evaluating resource extraction and management of the sanctuary. The study was based on in-depth semi-structured interviews and group discussions with local inhabitants of six villages and with forest officials. In addition, regeneration patterns and vegetation analysis was conducted in three land tenurial systems: community forest (CF), reserve forest (RF) and protected forest (PF). Key issues identified were wildlife offences, encroachment, pressure from unsustainable harvesting of resources and lack of livelihood opportunities. Ecological studies showed continuous change in regeneration patterns in forest patches/stands. The local survey stressed managing sanctuary fringes considering the village economy, social issues and resource requirements, and enhancing on-farm resource production to reduce pressure on forests. Forest personnel demanded more training on encroachment and poaching, these being major threats to biodiversity and bio-resources. Supporting and providing better livelihood opportunities is a viable option for minimizing pressure and managing biodiversity of the area through active community participation. This study generated useful outcomes and strategies for advancing policies to reduce pressure and overcome management constraints in the sanctuary.     

Lands for Long-Term Research in Conservation Biology

Abstract: Success in conservation biology depends upon a synergistic combination of short-term tactics and long-term strategies. Although the former are often necessary to forestall immediate habitat losses, the latter provide the critical framework of understanding needed to develop effective short-term priorities. Although many conservation biologists now emphasize short-term tactics, prudence dictates the concomitant establishment of long-term research projects aimed at answering fundamental ecological questions.
One deterrent to amassing such long-term data bases, aside from time and funding, is a lack of suitable sites where such studies can be conducted on a large scale. We describe two established major land-holding networks in the United States that could serve as appropriate places to develop long-term studies: the National Science Foundation's Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) sites, and the US. Department of Energy's National Environmental Research Parks (NERPs). Because they consist of established research facilities, both networks can provide conservation biologists with "low-cost" baseline information on ecological processes, as well as access to a number of representative terrestrial and aquatic habitats under more or less "controlled" conditions suitable for long-term studies. We recommend that conservation biologists explore the possibility of using these or similarly available sites in their research programs.     

Blue Tits use fledgling quantity and quality as public information in breeding site choice

Public information (PI), which is the information that can be derived from the behavior and performance of conspecifics, has been demonstrated to be used in many fitness-enhancing decisions. In the context of breeding habitat choice, PI use has been called "habitat copying." We experimentally tested the existence of habitat copying in the Blue Tit (Cyanistes caeruleus), a nonmigratory, short-lived hole-nesting bird. We manipulated the mean number of fledglings raised locally (quantity) and their condition (quality) as components of PI by transferring nestlings from Decreased (D) patches to Increased (I) patches. Our manipulations caused a negative relationship between fledgling quantity and quality that does not exist naturally: I patches had a higher number of fledglings that were in poorer condition, whereas D patches had a lower number in better condition. Control (C) patches, whether manipulated or not, had intermediate levels in terms of fledgling quantity and quality. Adult emigration the following year was higher from D than from C or I patches. Similarly, adult dispersal distance decreased for individuals coming from D to C to I patches. This suggests that resident breeders rely mainly on fledgling quantity to make emigration decisions. Emigration patterns of juveniles did not vary in relation to our patch manipulation. Immigration rates were higher and similar in I and D patches than in C patches. Hence, immigrant Blue Tits seem to rely on one of the manipulated components of PI and are insensitive to the discrepancy between fledgling quantity and quality. This shows that even nonmigratory species, such as Blue Tits, may use PI in their dispersal decisions but weigh its components differently for emigration and immigration. Differences among species in the importance of PI in breeding habitat choices may be explained by differences in life histories.