General equilibrium effects of a supply side GHG mitigation option under the Clean Development Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is considered a key instrument to encourage developing countries' participation in the mitigation of global climate change. Reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through the energy supply and demand side activities are the main options to be implemented under the CDM. This paper analyses the general equilibrium effects of a supply side GHG mitigation option-the substitution of thermal power with hydropower--in Thailand under the CDM. A static multi-sector general equilibrium model has been developed for the purpose of this study. The key finding of the study is that the substitution of electricity generation from thermal power plants with that from hydropower plants would increase economic welfare in Thailand. The supply side option would, however, adversely affect the gross domestic product (GDP) and the trade balance. The percentage changes in economic welfare, GDP and trade balance increase with the level of substitution and the price of certified emission reduction (CER) units.     

Joint implementation: Biodiversity and greenhouse gas offsets

One of the most pressing environmental issues today is the possibility that projected increases in global emissions of greenhouse gases from increased deforestation, development, and fossil-fuel combustion could significantly alter global climate patterns. Under the terms of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed in Rio de Janeiro during the June 1992 Earth Summit, the United States and other industrialized countries committed to balancing greenhouse gas emissions at 1990 levels in the year 2000. Included in the treaty is a provision titled Joint Implementation, whereby industrialized countries assist developing countries in jointly modifying long-term emission trends, either through emission reductions or by protecting and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks (carbon sequestration). The US Climate Action Plan, signed by President Clinton in 1993, calls for voluntary climate change mitigation measures by various sectors, and the action plan included a new program, the US Initiative on Joint Implementation. Wisconsin Electric decided to invest in a Jl project because its concept encourages creative, cost-effective solutions to environmental problems through partnering, international cooperation, and innovation. The project chosen, a forest preservation and management effort in Belize, will sequester more than five million tons of carbon dioxide over a 40-year period, will become economically selfsustaining after ten years, and will have substantial biodiversity benefits.     

Climate targets and comprehensive greenhouse gas emissions trading

In June 1992 a Framework on Climate Change Convention was signed in Rio de Janeiro, calling for the control of greenhouse gases, notably in the industrialized countries. Its formulation allows for joint implementation of measures to reach emission targets for greenhouse gases. Such joint implementation covering all greenhouse gases could form the first step towards a system of comprehensive emissions trading. This paper addresses both advantages and disadvantages of comprehensive emissions trading across different gases, sinks and sources. It concludes that in addition to carbon dioxide from fossil fuels, the inclusion of biotic carbon emissions and selected sources of methane is attractive from both the economic and environmental viewpoint. The uncertainties associated with emissions can be overcome by requiring a thorough review of trade proposals by a broad-based international supervisory body, utilizing a consistent methodology such as that being developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Finally, the paper addresses the central objective of the Climate Convention, which implicity sets a limit to greenhouse gases emissions and thus provides a guideline for the total amount of permits that may be made available in a tradeable permit system.     

Decomposing patterns of emission intensity in the EU and China: how much does trade matter?

We use data from the World Input-Output Database to examine channels through which CO₂ emissions are embodied within, and imported into, the European production in 2005 and in 2009. We use an input–output price model to simulate the effect that a rise in the price of emissions trading system (ETS) allowances would have on the final price of goods. We find a reduction in emission intensity, which was greatest in those sectors regulated under ETS. Finally we examine the trade between China and the EU to study possible increases in carbon leakage. Results show that emissions embodied in imported intermediate goods have increased in all sectors.     

多维度高质量城镇化对能源消费碳排放的传导机制研究

碳排放研究一直是国际气候变化领域研究的热点,高质量的城镇化有利于碳排放减少及全球气候变化减缓。本文从人口、土地、经济三个维度构建高质量城镇化评价指标体系,对2005—2019年中国30个省域的高质量城镇化水平进行评价,在理论机制分析的基础上利用中介效应模型验证了三个维度高质量城镇化对能源消费碳排放的中介效应。结果表明：不同维度的高质量城镇化水平对碳排放的影响不同,当前的人口高质量城镇化具有显著碳减排效果,经济高质量城镇化也具有一定碳减排作用,但现阶段土地高质量城镇化增加了碳排放;不同维度的高质量城镇化与能源消费碳排放之间存在不同的作用机制。具体而言,劳动力结构转型在人口高质量城镇化与碳排放间不存在中介效应,土地财政在土地高质量城镇化与碳排放间存在完全中介效应,经济集聚在经济高质量城镇化与碳排放间存在遮掩效应。     

Cities and the challenge of multiscalar climate justice: climate governance and social equity in Chicago,Birmingham, and Vancouver

The imperative of climate justice has been gaining political and discursive power in international climate negotiations. Yet scholars are just beginning to investigate how climate policies are impacting social equity in practice. This paper contributes concrete examples and a multiscalar analysis to this emerging understanding. As cities are increasingly important players in global climate governance, it examines cases from three cities in the global North that have made notable attempts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in a socially just way: Chicago, Illinois; Birmingham, England; and Vancouver, British Columbia. These cases show that there is significant potential for cities to further global climate justice through emission reductions while enhancing social justice locally. However, they also demonstrate the importance of understanding just carbon mitigation as a multiscalar phenomenon. In each of these cities, leaders’ abilities to mitigate climate change in a just way are shaped by larger processes of changing global markets, political opportunities and constraints, and inconsistent national regulatory environments. To the extent that cities continue to act as important sites of the carbon mitigation necessary to achieve global climate justice, this research highlights the necessity of creating national and global political conditions that enable the implementation of just climate mitigation in urban areas.     

Market-based mechanisms for controlling global emissions of greenhouse gases

Increasing worldwide concern about global warming has led to intensified international efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The most important outcome of these efforts is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which came into force in March 1994. Although its signatories are expected to draw up plans to curb greenhouse gas emissions, the Convention does not specify how these emissions should be controlled. Since market-based mechanisms for emissions control have been increasingly emphasized at both national and international levels, this paper discusses both their advantages over regulation and the main obstacles to their implementation. The ultimate aim of the paper is to propose possible baseline criteria for the formulation of a global tradable permit system to control carbon dioxide emissions .     

碳中和背景下欧盟碳边境调节机制对我国的影响及对策分析

在全球碳中和的新形势下,欧盟委员会于2021年7月正式提出"碳边境调节机制"(CBAM)立法提案,并计划于2023年起实施。本文在总结立法提案关键要素的基础上,着重分析欧盟CBAM的合法性与合理性,研判可能对我国产生的潜在影响,并从国际国内层面提出对策建议。分析发现,欧盟采取"名义"碳市场的形式,初期将覆盖水泥、电力、化肥、钢铁和铝等5个行业,只核算产品生产过程的直接排放,暂不考虑间接排放,2023—2025年是过渡期,2026年开始正式实施。欧盟CBAM的合法性与合理性面临诸多挑战:不符合世界贸易组织国民待遇原则和最惠国待遇原则,但存在满足关税与贸易总协定例外条款的可能性;违反国际气候治理的共同但有区别的责任原则、公平原则和各自能力原则,也不符合公约关于国际贸易歧视或变相限制的条款;对解决碳泄漏问题和保护本土竞争力的作用有限;产品隐含碳核算和碳价确定是技术难点问题。影响评估发现,欧盟CBAM将使我国受影响部门的对欧出口总额降低11%~13%,出口成本增加1亿~3.05亿美元,其中约四分之三的成本将由钢铁行业承担,对贸易隐含碳的下降作用有待进一步考量;此外,欧盟CBAM将会影响多边国际气候谈判进程,也会对我国经济社会发展、国际贸易、产业转型、技术提升等方面产生间接影响。我国应在国际层面坚定在气候治理多边框架下解决碳泄露问题,探索提出中国方案;积极推进贸易自由化,提升我国贸易优势;加强中欧对话协商,避免CBAM成为中欧"绿色贸易壁垒"。在国内层面稳步加快全国碳排放权交易体系建设,夯实碳排放核算基础能力,加强科学研究与交流合作。     

Bulgaria Country Study to address climate change mitigation

Future developments of the Bulgarian economy, energy demand, energy supply, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are projected and evaluated for baseline and mitigation scenarios. Different methods and approaches are used at different stages of the study with a tendency to incorporate them in a single integrated resource planning tool such as the MARKAL-MACRO model. The results obtained indicate that the aim of Framework Convention of Climate Change to have year 2000 GHG emissions below the base year 1988 emissions will be achieved without further mitigation steps. Reducing the expected increase of GHG emissions in the decade 2000 to 2010 requires a package of mitigation measures to be implemented in the next few years.

     

Use of embodied energy and ecological footprinting to assess the global environmental impact of consumption in an Irish city-region

The objective of this paper is to compare the carbon emissions produced as a result of product consumption by the residents of an Irish city-region, that is Limerick City and its environs. The resulting carbon footprints are used to compare imports of food items, manufactured products and construction materials with domestic production as well as changes between 1996 and 2002. The total ecological footprints (EF) associated with product consumption are also calculated by aggregating the theoretical land required to sequester carbon emissions and the terrestrial land area appropriated for agricultural production and industrial activity. It is suggested that this approach be used to allocate producer or consumer responsibility for environmental impacts from trade.     

Panel heterogeneous distribution analysis of trade and modernized agriculture on CO2 emissions: The role of renewable and fossil fuel energy consumption

In line with the global target of reducing climate change and its impact, this study explored the causal relationship between CO₂ emissions, modernized agriculture, trade openness, aggregate and disaggregate energy consumption in 14 African countries from 1990–2013 using a panel quantile estimation procedure. The empirical results showed that value addition to agricultural commodities declines CO₂ emissions in countries with high pollution levels. The study revealed a positive nexus between CO₂ emissions and energy consumption homogeneously distributed across quantiles. Trade openness was found to lower CO₂ emissions in countries with lower and higher levels of environmental pollution. While fossil fuel energy consumption was found to exacerbate CO₂ emissions, renewable energy consumption confirmed its mitigating effect on environmental pollution. The institution of climate‐smart agricultural options will sustainably increase productivity and income while adapting to climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Diversification of energy technologies with clean and modern energy sources like renewables avoid the over‐dependence on fossil fuels for agricultural purposes. Trade policies can stimulate flows of technology and investment opportunities for specialization in production and economies of scale. Hence, the consideration of policies that boost agricultural sector productivity and create an efficient market for international trade in Africa will help in improving livelihoods.     

基于碳排放的秦皇岛市工业产业结构优化研究

根据联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会推荐的方法,计算了秦皇岛市工业行业2005-2010年的能源消费碳排放。秦皇岛市工业效益偏低,重工业比例偏大和以煤炭为主的能源结构是碳排总量和碳排放强度的主要驱动力。改造提升传统主导产业,做强装备制造业,加快工业园区建设,完善产业链,改善能源结构等是秦皇岛市工业产业结构优化的主要途径。     

Aligning Climate Policy with National Interest: Disengagements with Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions in South Africa

Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) were proposed as a policy framework that could provide middle ground for meeting both the development and mitigation objectives in developing countries. While South Africa engaged actively with the NAMA terminology in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change negotiations, its engagement at the domestic level has been rather lacklustre. This presents an interesting paradox. The paper studies the interplay of international norms embodied in NAMAs with South Africa's domestic policy process. Disengagement and contestation around NAMAs in South Africa is played out at three stages: decision-making stage where the symptoms surrounding this contestation first emerge; policy formulation stage where NAMAs have to not only align with the National Development Plan but also compete with a predilection for domestically familiar terminology of flagships under the national climate policy; and finally the broader agenda-setting stage of policy process, where NAMAs have to prove useful in not only pursuing the developmental state agenda but also in tackling the underlying material factors that represent country's economic dependency on fossil fuels. NAMAs faced combined resistance from ideas and interests in various degrees at all these stages resulting in their disengagement.     

Application of strategies for sanitation management in wastewater treatment plants in order to control/reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Greenhouse gases (GHG), basically methane (CH(4)), carbon dioxide (CO(2)) and nitrous oxide (N(2)O), occur at atmospheric concentrations of ppbv to ppmv under natural conditions. GHG have long mean lifetimes and are an important factor for the mean temperature of the Earth. However, increasing anthropogenic emissions could produce a scenario of progressive and cumulative effects over time, causing a potential "global climate change". Biological degradation of the organic matter present in wastewater is considered one of the anthropogenic sources of GHG. In this study, GHG emissions for the period 1990-2027 were estimated considering the sanitation process and the official domestic wastewater treatment startup schedule approved for the Metropolitan Region (MR) of Santiago, Chile. The methodology considers selected models proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and some others published by different authors; these were modified according to national conditions and different sanitation and temporal scenarios. For the end of the modeled period (2027), results show emissions of about 65Tg CO(2) equiv./year (as global warming potential), which represent around 50% of national emissions. These values could be reduced if certain sanitation management strategies were introduced in the environmental management by the sanitation company in charge of wastewater treatment.     

Taking Venezuela back to the sustainability path: The role of financial development and economic integration in low‐carbon transition

Environmental protection and sustainable development are connected. Such connection is considered highly important for Venezuela, where fossil fuel abundance has created economic and environmental challenges. Surprisingly, only limited attention has been directed to identifying policy options for charting the path to sustainable development in the economy. Contributing to filling this gap in the literature, this study examines whether financial development, de facto and de jure conditions in trade and financial integration can trigger long‐term economic shifts that will change the trajectory of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in the economy using a novel estimation approach—dynamic simulations of autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) models. The empirical modelling framework incorporates the impact of population, economic growth, energy intensity and government consumption expenditure. ARDL‐bounds test provides evidence that the variables are cointegrated. Long‐run estimates from the dynamic ARDL analysis show that de facto and de jure conditions in trade and financial components of economic integration offer varied policy options for carbon mitigation in Venezuela. Population size, energy intensity, government consumption expenditure and de facto condition in financial integration have increasing impact on CO₂ emissions, exacerbating suitability challenges in the economy. On the other hand, positive shocks in financial development, de facto condition in trade integration and de jure condition in financial integration have a mitigation effect on CO₂ emissions. Overall, financial development, trade integration and the control of cross‐border financial flows are needed economic conditions that can accelerate a quick transition to a low‐carbon develpoment in Venezuela.     

Estimating the potential of greenhouse gas mitigation in Kazakhstan

As part of the studies related to the obligations of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Republic of Kazakhstan started activities to inventory greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and assess of GHG mitigation options. The objective of this paper is to present an estimate of the possibility of mitigating GHG emissions and determine the mitigation priorities. It presents a compilation of the possible options and their assessment in terms of major criteria and implementation feasibility. Taking into account the structure of GHG emissions in Kazakhstan in 1990, preliminary estimates of the potential for mitigation are presented for eight options for the energy sector and agriculture and forestry sector. The reference scenario prepared by expert assessments assumes a reduction of CO₂ emissions in 1996–1998 by about 26% from the 1990 level due to general economic decline, but then emissions increase. It is estimated that the total potential for the mitigation of CO₂ emissions for the year 2000 is 3% of the CO₂ emissions in the reference scenario. The annual reduction in methane emissions due to the estimated options can amount to 5%–6% of the 1990 level.

     

The political economy of certificates for land use in Germany – experimental evidence

Certificate trading schemes have been discussed as a cost-efficient means of reducing urban land consumption in Germany by capping and reallocating permissions to conduct building projects. However, in contrast to the established cap & trade systems for emissions, reputation-seeking politicians would be in charge of buying and trading certificates – an aspect not considered to date. We thus present a laboratory experiment that captures politicians’ incentives connected to electoral cycles in a cap & trade scheme for land consumption, whereby tradable certificates are auctioned and grandfathered in equal shares. We find the cap & trade system to be efficient at large; yet, there are several politically relevant distortions that are aggravated by self-serving incentives. We thus identify potential problems to a cap & trade system for urban land consumption that could substantially reduce both its assumed superior efficiency and its political feasibility.     

Analysis of energy security and sustainability in future low carbon scenarios for Brazil

This study estimated a series of indicators to assess the energy security of supply and global and local environmental impacts under different mitigation scenarios through 2050 in Brazil, designed with the integrated optimization energy system model MESSAGE‐BRAZIL. The assessment of interactions between environmental impacts and energy security dimensions was complemented through the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Overall results imply energy security establishes more synergies than trade‐offs in increasingly stringent mitigation scenarios, especially patent within the sustainability dimension, which increases energy security and provides additional benefits regarding climate change mitigation and air pollution emissions. It is still necessary to extend analysis to other energy sectors in addition to the power supply sector and to promote a better understanding of repercussions of energy scenario expansion in energy security.     

碳排放交易体系的政策灵活性:国际经验及启示

在《联合国气候变化框架公约》和《京都议定书》的背景下,越来越多的国家开始关注全球气候变暖的问题。考虑到碳排放交易体系比碳税更具有政治可行性,不少国家或地区开始实施碳排放交易体系,以最低的减排成本来达到温室气体减排目标。然而,采用碳排放交易体系,其排放总量是固定的,而减排成本是不确定的,可能会出现由于政策或外部冲击而产生的配额价格异常波动的现象。因此,为确保碳排放交易体系的成本有效性,政策灵活性十分重要。在理想情况下,碳排放市场具有完全的时间灵活性(包括长期的履约期、自由的配额储存与预借)和空间灵活性(即建立全球碳市场),这将对增强市场流动性、降低减排成本、缓解价格波动起到重要的作用。然而,由于政策设计需要考虑更多因素,实际上理想状态很难达到。本文将对国外碳排放交易体系的政策灵活性设计进行较为系统的分析和比较,尤其关注履约期的长短、配额的跨期使用、配额的抵消、区域碳市场连接等方面的具体政策设计,这对我国在7个省市进行碳排放交易试点以及今后建立全国性的碳排放交易体系有较强的借鉴意义。     

Influencing climate change regulations: examining responses from large-scale firms

Recent climate change projections and a push towards a universal agreement on carbon emission reductions suggest that firms will need to respond to future regulatory changes. This paper employs an influencing strategies lens to examine how large-scale firms might respond to future climate change regulations. The study uses a structured qualitative methodology to explore and explicate the strategic responses from 21 international firms to the proposed emissions trading scheme outlined in Australia's Garnaut Climate Change Review. The results of the analysis show that firms can use pre-emptive influencing strategies in attempts to shape and mould regulatory design parameters, secure high levels of transitional economic support, and shift the balance of public policies and expenditure. Complementary defensive strategies may also target policy makers and regulators with some of the potential negative consequences of the new regulations.