北京市地面街尘与径流中重金属的污染特征（Characteristics of Heavy Metals in Street Dusts and Urban Runoff in Beijing）

街尘作为城市各种污染物的载体和地表径流污染物的主要来源对水环境的影响日益受到关注.论文分析了北京市城区街尘与地表径流中重金属浓度和颗粒的粒径分布.结果表明:不同城市土地利用类型对街尘和径流中的重金属含量、颗粒粒径分布具有重要影响.在商业区、主要道路、住宅区、城中村4种土地利用类型中,街尘重金属浓度和地面单位面积重金属质量均以主要道路最高;径流重金属浓度由高到低顺序依次为:主要道路>城中村>居民区;主要道路和商业区街尘颗粒中细粒径占的比例较高,在全部土地利用类型的径流水样中颗粒物粒径分布差别不大;随着街尘中颗粒物粒径的减小,重金属浓度增加;街尘中小于149μm的颗粒物质量百分比和重金属浓度均较高,且在径流中这个粒径段的颗粒物含量也高,体积比达80%以上.建议在今后的城市街尘面源污染控制中应特别关注土地利用类型和街尘粒径的影响.     

长江三角洲河网地区典型城镇街尘中多环芳烃的污染特征

街尘是一种重要的环境介质,其携带的污染物在城镇化过程中对河网地区的水环境构成了一定的威胁.为初步探讨长江三角洲河网地区典型街尘中多环芳烃(PAHs)的污染特征,以杭嘉湖平原河网地区饮用水水源河流上游典型小城镇的街尘为研究对象,对工业区、交通干道、旧居区、新居区和商业区5种土地利用类型的15个采样点进行街尘样品采集和粒径分级,测试街尘的密度、有机质含量以及16种U.S.EPA优控PAHs含量等指标.结果表明,粒径为<63、63～125、125～250和250～900μm街尘中总多环芳烃(∑PAHs)的平均含量分别为7261、5835、4660和2909μg·kg-1,粒径越小,PAHs含量越高,其生态风险越大.不同土地利用类型的街尘中PAHs的含量顺序依次为:工业区>交通干道>旧居区>新居区>商业区.街尘中PAHs和有机质含量存在显著正相关关系,且街尘粒径越小,有机质和PAHs的相关性越强.源解析结果表明,街尘中的PAHs多为燃烧源.     

成都市中心城区街道灰尘中硒赋存形态及生态风险评价

以成都市中心城区街道灰尘为研究对象,采集了四种功能区的街道灰尘样品,并过筛分成<97μm和<63μm两种粒径.使用沸水浴王水消解法和改进的BCR顺序提取法对街尘样品中硒的总量及赋存形态进行测定,分析了两种粒径下各功能区硒的分布特征,并运用生态风险评价指数（RAC）法对其生态风险进行评价.结果表明,两种粒径街尘中总硒平均含量分别为0.373 mg·kg^-1和0.530 mg·kg^-1,粒径<97μm街尘中各功能区硒平均含量基本相当,粒径<63μm街尘中教育区域和居住区域硒平均含量更高.相较于粒径<97μm的街尘,在粒径<63μm的街尘中,弱酸提取态硒和可还原态硒的比例均有上升,可氧化态硒占比有所下降.硒在成都市中心城区街尘中主要为低生态风险,但存在中等生态风险地区,并且粒径<63μm比<97μm生态风险更大,需引起注意.     

华中冶金工业走廊表层土壤、道路尘重金属污染特征及健康风险

于2015年1月,分别采集了316国道黄石-鄂州段表层土壤和道路尘样品各23个,采用火焰原子吸收分光光度法定量分析其重金属含量,以探讨重金属的污染特征及其健康风险.结果表明,Cu、Pb、Zn、Cd、Co、Cr、Ni、Mn的平均含量分别为97. 51、31. 18、115. 57、0. 58、21. 20、30. 10、37. 34、573. 74 mg·kg-1(表层土壤);730.12、236.23、392.74、6.20、223.72、90.54、148.42、4698.46 mg·kg-1(道路尘),且变异系数较大,污染分布不均匀.道路尘中重金属含量明显高于表层土壤,黄石段道路尘中重金属(除Cr、Ni、Mn外)明显高于鄂州段.地累积指数表明:表层土壤中Co及道路尘中Cd、Co、Mn污染最严重.由健康风险评价可知,表层土壤和道路尘中8种重金属非致癌风险为儿童成人,其中手-口摄入为重金属暴露的主要途径,表层土壤中各种重金属暴露风险不大,而道路尘中Cr和Mn存在非致癌风险;表层土壤中Cd、Co、Ni、Cr均不存在致癌风险,道路尘的致癌风险主要来源于Cr.     

沈阳市街道灰尘中重金属的空间分布特征研究

对沈阳市区街道灰尘中Cd、Cu、Pb、Zn的含量水平进行了研究,并分析了重金属的空间分布特征.结果表明:市区街道灰尘中Cd、Cu、Pb、Zn的含量范围分别为2.29～15.04 mg·kg-1、46.96～204.29 mg·kg-1、62.76～509.48 mg·kg-1、277.41～422.89 mg·kg-1,平均值为4.35 mg·kg-1、81.33 mg·kg-1、106.26 mg·kg-1、334.47 mg·kg-1,是沈阳市土壤背景值的27.18、3.31、4.80、5.67倍;市区西部重金属污染程度高于东部,东、西部污染程度高于南、北部;街道灰尘中Cd、Pb空间分布差异较大,Zn分布较均匀;除Cd以外,铁西区重金属含量均最高,特别是Pb含量明显高于其他区,这与其工业区性质密不可分;Cd在大东区含量最高,这应与东部的汽车产业特征有密切关系;Cd-Zn,Cu-Pb,Cu-Zn,Pb-Zn之间都有着极显著的相关性;地积累指数法的评价结果表明:Cd处于重污染水平,其余3种重金属处于偏中度污染水平.研究结果以期为沈阳市的城市环境污染防治和城市规划提供重要的科学依据.     

城市不同功能区道路沙尘重金属污染地球化学特征与评价

2007年8月在乌鲁木齐市区不同城市功能区(商业区,工业区,居住区)采集了道路沙尘样品67个.利用ICP-MS测定样品中10种重金属元素Cd,Cr,Cu,Ni,Pb,Mn,Be,Co,Zn和U的含量,并运用主成分分析和污染指数(PI和IPI)法对所测含量数据进行分析.结果表明,沙尘样品中10种重金属的平均含量分别为1.05,55.12,101.0,44.66,57.79,929.37,2.79,341.36和2.09 mg·kg-1.除了Co和U,其它8种重金属的平均含量都高于它们的背景值.不同功能区道路沙尘中,重金属的综合污染指数差异明显,从高到低依次为工业区4.63、商业区4.08和居住区2.48,其中商业区和工业区都达到了重污染水平,居住区达到中污染水平.不同功能区道路沙尘各重金属的单项污染指数中,Cr,Cu,Pb和Zn在商业区道路沙尘中的污染水平最高,其主要来源应为交通污染源;Cd和Be在工业区道路沙尘中的污染水平最高,其主要来源应为工业污染源;Ni,Co和U在居住区道路沙尘中的污染水平最高,其来源可能与生活污染源有关;而Mn在三个不同功能区的污染水平几乎相同,其主要来源应为自然源.     

城市街道常绿灌木植物叶片滞尘能力及滞尘颗粒物形态

城市园林植被中街道常绿灌木受工业排放、机动车尾气和道路扬尘等多重污染影响,其叶片生长高度恰好接近人体呼吸带,叶片受污染程度可反映人体污染暴露水平,是良好的环境质量代用指标。对于北方城市环境而言,常绿植被叶片的滞尘效应尤其重要。作者选择大气颗粒物污染严重的石家庄市为代表,对北方地区园林常用灌木植物大叶黄杨叶片的滞尘效应进行了研究。在石市4条主交通干道两旁样点首先对选定的大叶黄杨叶片进行冲洗,5日后取回载尘叶片进行滞尘量测量,重复进行5次,获得5个周期内叶片滞尘量数据;并对叶片表面滞尘颗粒物形态进行扫描电镜观察。结果表明,晴朗微风天气条件下,大叶黄杨叶片平均滞尘量为0.8614g·m-2·d-1,单叶最大饱和滞尘量为11.6197g·m-2,累积达到叶片饱和滞尘量的时间是15日。大叶黄杨叶片滞尘量大于同时期环境监测的大气降尘量,差额来自机动车排放和道路扬尘影响,这种影响约占叶片全部滞尘量的34.7%。大叶黄杨叶片表面滞尘为粒径小于10μm的颗粒物,深度清洗后叶片表面仍滞留粒径小于5μm的颗粒物,说明大叶黄杨叶片可以固定有害悬浮颗粒物并使之从大气环境中清除。本研究表明大叶黄杨强滞尘能力是城市近地面层环境中清除颗粒物污染的重要机制。     

城市不同功能区内叶面尘与地表灰尘的粒径和重金属特征

在城市粉尘污染研究中,叶面尘与地表灰尘被认为是新的切人点.以南京市不同功能区为例,分别收集了各功能区典型绿化树种的叶面尘与同区域的地表灰尘,采用激光粒径分析仪测定了叶面尘与地表灰尘的粒径分布规律,应用ICP-AES对样品重金属含量进行了测定,并以此为基础,对重金属的生态风险进行了评价,最后分析了叶面尘与地表灰尘所含重金属元素之间的相关性.结果表明,叶面尘与地表灰尘中颗粒物粒径集中分布于100 μm以内,两者粒径累积曲线均呈现正态单峰分布,其中商业区和工业区颗粒物粒径较小.不同功能区重金属含量差异显著,污染水平递减顺序为:商业区、工业区、交通枢纽区、街道复层绿化区、科教生活区.潜在生态危害评价表明,叶面尘的生态危害大于地表灰尘,除科教生活区外,叶面尘在其余四个功能区均产生中等生态危害.重金属Pearson相关分析发现,叶面尘与地表灰尘存在相似来源,即主要来自交通排放、工业污染等人为源.粒径与重金属两方面的研究指示出南京市粉尘污染最严重的是商业区与工业区,这为进一步控制城市粉尘污染提供了有力依据.     

冬季农田杂草繁缕对镉的积累特性研究

为进一步筛选出更多的镉超富集植物作为植物修复的材料,本文以冬季农田杂草作为研究对象,采用土壤种子库-金属筛选法进行筛选,以期从冬季农田杂草中筛选出镉超富集植物,为镉污染农田土壤的冬季植物修复提供材料。通过土壤种子库-金属筛选法初步研究发现,冬季农田杂草繁缕(Stellaria media)地上部分镉含量接近超富集植物的临界值(100 mg·kg-1),但转运系数(TF)小于1,可能是镉富集植物。为此,采用盆栽试验进行了进一步的浓度梯度鉴定。结果表明,随土壤镉含量的增加,繁缕根系生物量、地上部分生物量、主枝长度、根系长度、抗性系数及耐性系数均随土壤镉含量的增加而下降,但繁缕根系及地上部分镉含量呈显著增加的趋势。与对照相比,在土壤镉质量分数为25、50、75、100和125 mg·kg-1时,繁缕总生物量分别下降了17.31%、34.87%、44.79%、52.12%和59.32%,但各个处理均没有表现出明显毒害症状。土壤镉含量为75~125 mg·kg-1时,繁缕地上部分镉含量均大于100 mg·kg-1,最大值为135.79 mg·kg-1,地上部分富集系数(BCF)大于1,但转运系数(TF)小于1。在土壤镉含量为100 mg·kg-1时,繁缕地上部分镉提取量达到最大值,为87.42μg·plant-1。这些结果表明繁缕是一种镉富集植物。虽然繁缕的单株镉提取率较低,但繁缕具有分蘖力强、繁殖力强、生长密度大、耐荫性强等特点,因此适用于冬季农田镉污染的修复。     

公路绿化带滞尘效应研究

道路交通扬尘不仅危害人体健康,而且会造成环境污染。以山西省典型公路绿化带为研究对象,对不同公路绿化带进行分类,并选择粒径分别为150、106、75、53μm的黄土粉,模拟道路交通TSP,采用喷粉机设置1、2、3、4 m·s-1的喷粉速度在路沿处设置人工喷粉,在路侧设置样带分0、2、5、10、15、20 m距离梯度布设采样点进行尘源样品的采集,进行称重。本文提出绿化带净滞尘率和梯度净化率的概念,研究不同粒径水平、不同瞬时风力条件以及不同类型绿化带对交通扬尘的阻滞吸收效应,最后基于显著影响因子和因子的互作采用逐步回归法拟合绿化带滞尘效应多元回归模型,分析绿化带滞尘效应与多种林带特征因子的关系。结果表明,公路绿化带明显改变了道路TSP扩散格局,对空气中的粉尘有显著的净化效应。本实验条件下,在距道路5 m范围内绿化带开始发挥效应,净滞尘效应均值达22.95%,随后TSP净滞尘率降低,在20m净滞尘率均值为9.83%,但净化率均值达96.56%;不同粒径水平和瞬时风力条件下,绿化带的滞尘效应不同,TSP粒径为53、75μm时,绿化带在5 m的净滞尘率最高,分别为18.81%和38.09%,而粒径为106、150μm时,绿化带在15 m的净滞尘率最高,分别为15.40%和24.94%,当瞬时风力为1 m·s-1时,净滞尘率在15 m处最高,为16.50%,当瞬时风力分别为2、3、4 m·s-1时,净滞尘率均在5 m处最高,分别为22.03%、28.69%、25.09%,均以高密度型绿化带(郁闭度≥0.55)效果较好;在近路基处栽植杨树(Populus L.)或槐树(Sophora japonica Linn.),且乔木种长势高大并伴有较密的灌草结构,能增强绿化带的滞尘效应。     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.