城市垃圾管制的一体化环境经济政策体系研究

为有效管制城市垃圾,我国迫切需要建立城市垃圾管制长效机制,实现从命令控制政策向环境经济政策的"历史性转变".本文在对环境经济政策的理论基础与实践经验进行回顾的基础上,着重讨论三类环境经济政策:垃圾按量收费、预收处理费用与循环回收补贴、押金返还制度.结果表明,鉴于垃圾污染问题的独特特征(属于面源污染,边际环境损害与个体行为水平不存在简单线性关系,垃圾污染责任难以明确界定等),城市垃圾管制没有简单、单一的环境经济政策.必须针对各责任主体设计独特化、具体化、精细化、针对性的环境经济政策.任何一种环境经济政策的有效性都是相对的,都需要相关政策的支持、配合,也都必须和现有的法律制度、文化背景、经济水平等相适配.由此,不同环境经济政策必须整合协调使用,最终形成城市垃圾管制一体化环境经济政策体系.     

我国生活垃圾处置市场的环境经济政策选择

目前我国生活垃圾市场仍然处于初级阶段．垃圾处置利益主体之间的关系更多地依赖行政手段．而非经济关系，国家出台的一系列经济政箫因为无法和现实吻合，常常发挥不出应有的作用。分析我国的生活垃圾处置市场现状，寻求真正适合我国国情的经济政策．增加政策对解决我国垃圾处置市场问题的适应性应该成为政策制定的出发点。在对我国垃圾处置市场的经济特征和垃圾处置的外部性分析的基础上．认为选择合适的环境经济手段是解决我国垃圾处置市场存在问题的关键之一。通过对相关的环境经济政策进行数学推导、分析。认为建立市场．选择有效的环境经济政策。包括产权明晰．完善垃圾收费制度和补贴制度．同时建立严格的环境标准和直接管制是解决我国垃圾处置市场存在的问题和推进垃圾处置市场建立的主要政策选择。     

共同生产视角下生活垃圾分类效果评价与政策驱动路径——基于中国中东部地区19个城市的模糊集定性比较分析

现有研究大多使用生活垃圾处理效率来衡量生活垃圾分类效果，尚缺乏公众参与视角下的生活垃圾分类效果评价。该研究基于共同生产理论对生活垃圾分类效果进行评价，将垃圾分类共同生产效果划分为高低不等的4个档次，并提出公民侧与政府侧的6个政策驱动因素，应用模糊集定性比较分析方法，分析中国中东部地区19个城市生活垃圾分类案例，剖析政策因素的必要性并探索高水平的垃圾分类共同生产效果的政策因素组合路径。研究表明：(1)在单因素层面，对公众进行“物质奖励”与“精神引导”，以及政府“绩效考核”与“提升公信力”，是实现高水平垃圾分类共同生产的必要政策驱动因素。(2)实现最强的垃圾分类共同生产需要综合调用政府侧和公民侧两方的政策措施，即4个必要政策驱动因素缺一不可。当缺少一个必要政策因素时，“强”共同生产就会转化为低一档的“较强”共同生产。(3)公民侧的强制与惩罚，以及政府侧的财政压力，对于实现“强”共同生产具有积极作用，且存在替代关系。该研究在理论上弥补了垃圾分类效果的评价机制，在实践层面有助于中国地方政府制定有效的政策措施促进公民积极参与垃圾分类，实现国家倡导的“政府推动，全民参与”垃圾分类情景。     

完善我国医疗废物集中处置收费政策的思考和建议

医疗废物处置收费政策是医疗废物处置产业化发展的重要前提和保障。当前,医疗废物处置收费政策执行难,欠费、漏费等问题非常突出,医疗废物集中收集十分困难。在对我国医疗废物处置收费政策进行全面分析和评估的基础上,对当前收费政策存在的主要问题和产生的原因进行了分析。以加快完善医疗废物处置收费政策为目标,从完善政策体系、加强监管执法、提高标准合理性、综合确定费用承担方、制定鼓励性的经济政策、提高宣传和缴费意识等方面,提出医疗废物处置收费政策改革完善的若干建议。     

城市垃圾资源利用前景的分析

总结了垃圾资源利用技术的发展现状；分析了我国城市垃圾的组成状况和变化趋势。以此为基础对其利用潜力进行了估计，并以流程为依据作了下世纪初城市垃圾资源利用系统的经济分析。认为资源利用是节约城市垃圾处理、处置费用和节省自然资源的有效途径；以生物和热化学转化利用城市垃圾中的能量是我国城市垃圾资源利用的主要方向。     

中部地区生物质资源潜力与减排效应估算

能源是战略性资源，是一个国家经济增长和社会发展的重要物质基础。随着中部地区经济的不断增长，对能源的消费量也呈逐渐上升趋势。传统化石能源日益显示出供给和环境两方面的压力，而生物质能源的开发利用具有能源替代和减少二氧化碳排放的效应。中部地区生物质资源丰富，经估算结果如下：第一，2009年农作物秸秆、牲畜粪便和城市垃圾3种生物质资源沼气潜力达839733亿m2，折合标煤7 31475万t；第二，开发利用3种生物质资源可减少二氧化碳排放量53 880 59483 t。据此，提出建议：第一，重点开发利用秸秆、牲畜粪便等农村生物质资源；第二，为中部地区生物质资源转化为生物质能源产品进而实现减排效应创造支撑条件     

城市生活垃圾与经济增长的非线性关系——基于环境库兹涅茨曲线的实证分析北大核心CSCDCSSCI

良好的环境是人类赖以生存和发展的基础,随着中国经济的快速发展和城镇化水平的不断提高,城市生活垃圾成为影响居民健康和城市可持续发展的重要因素。城市生活垃圾是否会随着经济发展一直持续增长下去?还是会存在着拐点?文章基于环境库兹涅茨曲线,选取2005—2019年中国30个省、自治区、市的面板数据,实证研究城市生活垃圾与经济增长之间的关系,并在不同经济发展水平下检验区域异质性。研究结果表明:(1)中国整体城市生活垃圾与经济增长呈倒“S”型,两个拐点大约在人均GDP为36 890元和107 450元。(2)北京、上海等沿海经济发达的地区大都已越过或接近第二个拐点,未来城市生活垃圾将随着经济增长呈下降趋势。(3)内陆地区除甘肃外,其余地区均已越过第一个拐点,但尚未越过第二个拐点,未来城市生活垃圾将随着经济增长呈上升趋势。(4)区域异质性检验发现,东部地区城市生活垃圾与经济增长呈倒“U”型;拐点大约在人均GDP为75 720元,中部地区城市生活垃圾与经济增长呈“U”型,拐点大约在人均GDP为34 500元;西部地区城市生活垃圾与经济增长呈倒“U”型,拐点大约在人均GDP为181 795元。总体来看,东部经济发达的地区企业和居民环保意识较强,政府对城市生活垃圾治理效果较好;中部和西部地区企业和居民环保意识还有待提高,政府应加强对城市生活垃圾的治理以及提高企业和居民的环保意识,特别是西部地区环保意识还很薄弱。由此,为实现环境保护与经济增长的协调发展,基于实证结果提出以下政策建议:(1)改变垃圾计费方式,有助于加速WKC曲线“拐点”的来临。(2)对不同地区应实行差异化环境规制政策。(3)应加大对“绿色”技术创新的投入。     

成都城市居民累进阶梯式水价结构与政策效果分析

水价改革是近年来政策变革和学术研究的热点问题。由于水资源本身兼具资源产品、民生产品和普通商品的特征,居民水价改革需要兼顾资源配置效率和居民的水费承受能力的同时,也需要关注对收入分配的影响以及节水效应。本研究针对成都市拟议中的累进阶梯式水价改革,基于全社会成本定价原则,通过设计不同的全社会成本水平和对应模拟不同的阶梯式水价结构,选取能够刻画居民用水需求特征的二次近似完美的需求体系,并利用相关计量经济学方法,实证分析价格结构的差异性设计对不同政策方面的影响。首先,横向比较分析的结果表明,总体而言,累进阶梯式定价有助于兼顾效率与公平,但不同的价格结构会影响到收入分配效果和节水效应。两阶梯价格水平差越大,收入群组间的交叉补贴相应越大。阶梯价格差越大的设计反映出的结果是,通过对高收入群组奢侈性部分用水征收更高的费用,从而使得所有居民能以更低的费用满足生存性的用水需求,即实际上体现为基本和奢侈性需求这两部分用水的成本在收入群组间不同的分担比例形式。同时,不同价格结构下的人均用水量也有所不同。这些差异的客观存在,表明阶梯式水价政策改革需对各种可能方案进行评估,以确保在各种政策效果间进行合理的权衡。此外,当较高收入群组的奢侈性用水量较大时,可考虑三阶梯甚至更多阶梯数的结构设计。阶梯数设计越多,可以对不同奢侈性用水制定不同的价格,以更加灵活的方式分担奢侈性用水的成本。但需要注意的是,更多阶梯数的设计可能会导致更大的交易成本(例如居民对价格结构的认知成本、计费的会计成本等)。该结论同样提示政策制定者需要权衡不同阶梯数设计的利弊以做选择。其次,针对不同水平的全社会成本所进行的纵向比较发现,当全社会成本水平越高,不仅表明水价综合水平的提高,同时也需要设计更多阶梯以及奢侈性用水阶梯需要设计更高价格水平的要求,该结论表明阶梯定价水平和价格结构都必须根据全社会成本水平的变化进行适时的调整。     

中国垃圾填埋气回收利用CDM项目现状与对策

根据最新数据，运用统计学方法，从总体情况、地理分布、国际比较、国外合作方和开发机构4个方面分析了当前我国垃圾填埋气回收利用CDM项目发展的现状：与其他类型CDM项目相比，垃圾填埋气回收利用项目规模小，估计年减排量少；项目签发量远少于设计估算的年减排量；年批准项目数增长快，项目主要分布在我国东部、中部地区及省会城市和计划单列市；相比其它类型的CDM项目，中国在垃圾填埋气回收利用CDM项目上位于全球第二位，而拉美国家占据优先；项目主要的国际合作方为欧盟国家。最后总结了项目开发发展中遇到的主要问题，并提出解决问题的多项政策建议     

农村居民生活垃圾合作治理参与行为研究:基于心理感知和环境干预的分析

在农村生活污染日趋严重的背景下，加快推动合作化治理，引导农村居民选择合适的生活垃圾处理方式，是实现建设“美丽乡村”目标的有效手段。基于湖北省的调查数据，利用Logistic回归探讨心理感知与环境干预对农村居民生活垃圾合作治理参与行为的影响。结果表明：（1）心理感知是影响农村居民生活垃圾合作治理参与行为的重要因素，对环境的容忍程度越低、自身环保意识越强的农村居民参与生活垃圾合作治理的可能性越大；（2）环境处罚制度对农村居民参与生活垃圾合作治理有促进作用；（3）交互效应分析表明，环保政策宣传和环境处罚制度在农村居民自身环保意识对其生活垃圾合作治理参与行为的影响中发挥正向调节作用。政府应加强宣传和引导，切实推动农村居民选择环保的生活垃圾处理方式，以推进农村环境污染治理，进而实现“农村美”的目标。     

WSSD 2002, Latin America and Brazil: Biodiversity and Indigenous People

Latin America comprehends notable variations in terms of natural environment, availability of natural resources, living standards, and demographic patterns. Latin America is a mosaic of cultures, post- and pre-Columbian. The rich variety of life forms discovered and described by chroniclers and traveling naturalists in the Neotropics contributed to the proposal, in mid-XVIIIth century, of a new system of classification and a scientific code of nomenclature for all organisms. Biodiversity was, for many centuries, a source of resources to be exploited in natura. In scientific circles, its inventory became the domain of taxonomists. But modern technology showed how important the miriad of life forms really are as sources of chemical molecules to be engineered as drugs and reassembled as novel manufactured products. We are on the brink of a new agricultural and medical revolution, thanks to the techniques of genetic engineering, which will lead eventually to the elimination of hunger and malnutrition.In this essay, the Brazilian environmental and social heterogeneity will serve as an example to illustrate some key points, which have influenced sustainability policies. The Amazon deforestation and indigenous knowledge (IK), subjects often associated with areas of high biodiversity, are usually the focus of environmental debates. The importance of IK in integrating development, reducing poverty and sustainability are considered together with the intellectual property rights of native populations.In the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Implementation Plan, a few paragraphs were dedicated to Latin America, because of the pre-existing Action Platform on the Road to Johannesburg 2002, approved in Rio de Janeiro in October 2001. This paper calls attention to the need to draw up specific environmental policies for a region which shows an extremely high cultural and biological diversity, associated with a high availability of forests and water, among other resources.     

Ethnosciences––A step towards the integration of scientific and indigenous forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources for the future

Integration of indigenous knowledge and ethnoscientific approaches into contemporary frameworks for conservation and sustainable management of natural resources will become increasingly important in policies on an international and national level, both in countries that are industrialised and those that have a developing status. We set the scene on how this can be done by exploring the key conditions and dimensions of a dialogue between ȁ8ontologiesȁ9 and the roles, which ethnosciences could play in this process. First, the roles of ethnosciences in the context of sustainable development were analysed, placing emphasis on the implications arising when western sciences aspire to relate to indigenous forms of␣knowledge. Secondly, the contributions of ethnosciences to such an ȁ8inter- ontological dialogueȁ9 were explored, based on an ethnoecological study of the encounter of sciences and indigenous knowledge in the Andes of Bolivia, and reviewed experiences from mangrove systems in Kenya, India and Sri Lanka, and from case-studies in other ecosystems world-wide, incl. Australia, Burkina Faso, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, Nepal, Niger, Philippines, Senegal, South-Africa and Tanzania.     

Paradoxical ozone associations could be due to methyl nitrite from combustion of methyl ethers or esters in engine fuels

We review studies of the effects of low ambient ozone concentrations on morbidity that found a negative coefficient for ozone concentration. We call this a Paradoxical Ozone Association (POA). All studies were in regions with methyl ether in gasoline. All but one study carefully controlled for the effects of other criterion pollutants, so the phenomenon cannot be attributed to them. One was in southern California in mid-summer when ozone levels are highest. Because ozone is created by sunlight, the most plausible explanation for a POA would be an ambient pollutant that is rapidly destroyed by sunlight, such as methyl nitrite (MN). A previously published model of engine exhaust chemistry suggested methyl ether in the fuel will create MN in the exhaust. MN is known to be highly toxic, and closely related alkyl nitrites are known to induce respiratory sensitivity in humans. Support for the interpretation comes from many studies, including three linking asthma symptoms to methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and the observation that a POA has not been seen in regions without ether in gasoline. We also note that studies in southern California show a historical trend from more significant to less significant ozone-health associations. The timing of those changes is consistent with the known timing of the introduction of gasoline oxygenated with MTBE in that region.     

湘鄂赣农业资源与专业化区域化方向

湘鄂赣地理位置优越,农业资源丰富,稻谷、茶叶、麻类、棉花、油料、柑桔和淡水产品、禽蛋、肉类等在我国居有重要的地位,因此,大力发展三省农业生产,对我国人民实现小康生活具有战略意义。今后,要加速专业化区域化进程。我们找出生产潜力所在:改造低产田、低产园、低产水面;开发“三高”技术;开垦荒地、荒山、荒水;适当提高复种指数。通过建设,三省主要农产品将自给有余,还可满足国内外市场的需要。努力方向:高效农业开发——综合农业开发,吨粮田开发,玉米带开发,饲料稻开发,山区开发;合理布局农业生产;深化农业商品基地建设,发展综合利用,搞活商品流通;全面提高农业现代化水平,加强农业社会服务体系。     

Prognosis of the spatiotemporal dynamics of ecosystems by means of universal kriging

The use of quantitative data for constructing prognostic maps of the dynamics of ecosystem degradation and restoration by nonlinear simulation methods is a topical field of landscape ecology. This method of dynamic cartography is based on fiberwise comparison of data on the state of Chernye Zemli (the Kalmyk Republic, Russia) in different years and the detailed analysis of the period on which the prognosis was based. For this purpose, materials of repeated aerial and satellite photography obtained during a long period (1954–1993) were used. Comparison of maps characterizing the dynamics of Chernye Zemli between 1958 and 1993 allows prognostic electronic maps for the next 10–15 years (with a five-year interval) to be drawn and land prognosis for the next 20–30 years (1998–2023) to be obtained. Deceased     

Household water in rural asia: a case study of the construction of a piped water system in Bangui,Ilocos Norte,Philippines

In early 1980 an extension agent was assigned to the rural municipality of Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines to work on development projects – in particular the improvement of the supply of safe water for drinking and sanitation. After many months of visiting spring sites and meeting with community leaders, a small part of the municipality was selected to build a gravity fed piped water system. Although the system took many months to plan, identify funding and construct, the 600 community members were ultimately rewarded with house to house connections that enabled them to achieve per capita water consumption levels above the minimum levels recommended by the World Health Organization. Of course, money was critical to ensure the project’s success, but many other factors played an equally critical role. For instance, without the active participation of the community and the unwavering support of the community leadership the project would not have survived the initial planning stage. Also, the extension agent played a critical role by acting as a conduit between funding agencies, the Bureau of Public Works and the community. The primary lesson to be learned from this experience is that the success of rural development projects is largely driven by the synergy between the community, technical support, financial support, and agents of change such as extension agents. If any of these ingredients had been lacking, the project result would likely have been far different.     

Distributions of personal VOC exposures: a population-based analysis

Information regarding the distribution of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations and exposures is scarce, and there have been few, if any, studies using population-based samples from which representative estimates can be derived. This study characterizes distributions of personal exposures to ten different VOCs in the U.S. measured in the 1999-2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Personal VOC exposures were collected for 669 individuals over 2-3 days, and measurements were weighted to derive national-level statistics. Four common exposure sources were identified using factor analyses: gasoline vapor and vehicle exhaust, methyl tert-butyl ether (MBTE) as a gasoline additive, tap water disinfection products, and household cleaning products. Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylenes chloroform, and tetrachloroethene were fit to log-normal distributions with reasonably good agreement to observations. 1,4-Dichlorobenzene and trichloroethene were fit to Pareto distributions, and MTBE to Weibull distribution, but agreement was poor. However, distributions that attempt to match all of the VOC exposure data can lead to incorrect conclusions regarding the level and frequency of the higher exposures. Maximum Gumbel distributions gave generally good fits to extrema, however, they could not fully represent the highest exposures of the NHANES measurements. The analysis suggests that complete models for the distribution of VOC exposures require an approach that combines standard and extreme value distributions, and that carefully identifies outliers. This is the first study to provide national-level and representative statistics regarding the VOC exposures, and its results have important implications for risk assessment and probabilistic analyses.     

Geographic Variation in the Seasonal Reproductive Strategy of the Mite Varroa jacobsoni in the Honeybee Nest

Variation in the reproduction of Varroa jacobsoni mite was studied in relation to the expansion of the range of its parasitism on the honeybee. Geographic differences in the seasonal dynamics of mite reproduction in the nests of bee families were revealed. Variation in the sex ratio of mites and the factors inhibiting their reproduction at the northern boundary of the honeybee range are considered. The forms of parthenogenetic reproduction in V. jacobsoni are discussed.     

Long-term increase in climatic dryness in the East-Mediterranean as evidenced for the island of Samos

The Eastern Mediterranean region is among the regions which were predicted to become drier under IPCC climate scenarios. Here, we document a gradual reduction of rainfall and tree growth and the loss of rural springs during the last decades of the twentieth century. Years with severe drought are associated with very low tree growth (dendrochronology) and dry falling of springs as evidenced by interviews with local stakeholders. The paper discusses the consequences of accelerating drought on natural vegetation and agriculture and points at the interaction with fire dynamics and economy, both likely to enhance the drought effect.