Stakeholder Willingness to Pay for Watershed Restoration in Rural Bolivia1

Abstract: Two CVM surveys were administered to 211 urban households and 188 rural farmer‐irrigators in the Comarapa watershed in Bolivia, South America, to estimate stakeholder willingness to pay (WTP) for a proposed upper watershed restoration program. Mean monthly household WTP to improve drinking water was $1.95 (65% of current charges), while mean annual WTP among farmer‐irrigators to improve irrigation water was $17 per hectare (34% of current costs). Aggregated to the entire population of households and farmer‐irrigators total WTP is $77,400 per year, which is 77% of the minimum cost to implement a watershed restoration program.     

AN EVALUATION OF THE 1997 EDWARDS AQUIFER IRRIGATION SUSPENSION1

ABSTRACT: In early 1997, the Texas Edwards Aquifer Authority implemented a pilot Irrigation Suspension Program with the objectives of increasing springflow and providing relief to municipalities during drought. Irrigators were paid an average of $234 per acre to suspend water use, a price higher than regional land rental rates. Auction theory and program implementation details suggest that the program implementation partially caused inflated bids. The Irrigation Suspension Program is also compared to two alternative programs: (1) subsidizing more efficient irrigation technology and (2) buying land. The irrigation suspension is found to be more cost‐effective relative to subsidizing improved irrigation efficiency because it can be put in place only when aquifer levels are low. Land purchase is a cheaper alternative if the bid levels remain at the levels observed.     

USING CONTINGENT VALUATION AND BENEFIT TRANSFER TO EVALUATE WATER SUPPLY IMPROVEMENT BENEFITS1

ABSTRACT: Many water systems in small cities and rural areas throughout the United States are facing water quality and supply problems. These problems are typically not the result of an unexpected event, but are the result of growth trends or decreasing water quality experienced over several years. This analysis uses the contingent valuation and benefit transfer methods to evaluate the willingness to pay for a rural water system in northcentral Montana. Both of the procedures resulted in similar values, ranging from about $4.05 to $7.50 per household per month for urban residents and $5.40 to $11.50 per household per month for rural residents, which is equal to 11 percent to 23 percent of current average water costs. The willingness to pay estimates do not include non-household water users. This analysis shows that useful planning information can be obtained from relatively inexpensive contingent valuation mail survey data and the benefit transfer method as long as the limitations of the data are understood. The willingness to pay for ensuring good quality rural water supplies in the future is likely to be low compared to the costs of extensive diversion and treatment systems. Willingness to pay estimates provide decision makers with information that can be used to avoid building a large water supply system that water users do not want to connect to because of high costs.     

VALUE OF WATER IN IRRIGATED CROP PRODUCTION USING DERIVED DEMAND FUNCTIONS: A CASE STUDY OF SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER IRRIGATION DISTRICT1

ABSTRACT: Water abundance has led most North American societies to use water freely without priorizing its use. As water scarcity becomes reality in the southern part of Saskatchewan, planners and managers of water require information about the value of water in irrigation, as well as in alternative uses. In this study, the value of water to the producer in irrigation is developed both for the short and long run. The basis of this imputation is a derived demand function for water using linear programming. Water demand was bound to be inelastic at lower prices, and highly elastic at higher prices. The short-run value of water varied between $0.44 and $127.82 (1986 dollars) per acre-foot for different levels of product prices. However, the long-run value was estimated between zero and $1.59 per acre-foot of water.     

Urban Streamflow Response to Imported Water and Water Conservation Policies in Los Angeles,California

Los Angeles has a long history of importing water; however, drought, climate change, and environmental mitigation have forced the City to focus on developing more local water sources (target of 50% local supply by 2035). This study aims to improve understanding of water cycling in Los Angeles, including the impacts of imported water and water conservation policies. We evaluate the influence of local water restrictions on discharge records for 12 years in the Ballona Creek (urban) and Topanga Creek (natural) watersheds. Results show imported water has significantly altered the timing and volume of streamflow in the urban Ballona watershed, resulting in runoff ratios above one (more streamflow than precipitation). Further analysis comparing pre‐ vs. during‐mandatory water conservation periods shows there is a significant decrease in dry season streamflow during‐conservation in Ballona, indicating that prior to conservation efforts, heavy irrigation and other outdoor water use practices were contributing to streamflow. The difference between summer streamflow pre‐ vs. during‐conservation is enough to serve 160,000 customers in Los Angeles. If Los Angeles returns to more watering days, educating the public on proper irrigation rates is critical for ensuring efficient irrigation and conserving water; however, if water restrictions remain in place, the City must take the new flow volumes into account for complying with water quality standards in the region.     

POTENTIAL IMPACT OF IRRIGATION ON WATER RESOURCES IN THE LITTLE WABASH BASIN OF ILLINOIS1

The level of water demand for supplemental irrigation and the impact of such demand on water supplies were estimated, as a function of the price of corn (Zea Mays L.). The method of estimation was based on an economic analysis of irrigation practice which assumed constant irrigation costs, profit maximizing behavior on the part of irrigators, and which was deliberately structured to underestimate the level of irrigation water use. The analysis was applied to and used data from the Little Wabash basin in Illinois. No irrigation was predicted at a corn price below $3.50 per bushel. Between $3.50 and about $6.50 per bushel, irrigation was estimated to be profitable for a small region of the basin where acceptable groundwater was available. Above about $6.50 to $7.50, irrigation was found to be profitable in the remainder of the basin, where impoundment storage was required. The potential impact on the water resources of the basin is significant. For a corn price between $3.50 and about $6.50, the probability of a shortfall, defined as the event where the potential demand exceeds the supply, was estimated to be between 2 percent and 20 percent during the growing season. Above about $7.50, this probability was found to be about one-third. The development of policies to control withdrawals for irrigation and other uses is endorsed.     

MUNICIPAL WATER USE AND WATER RATES DRIVEN BY SEVERE DROUGHT: A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: This paper synthesizes and interprets data pertaining to the evolution of average water revenue, water use, and the average cost of water supply in the City of Santa Barbara, California, from 1986 to 1996, a period which included one of the most devastating droughts in California this century. The 1987–1992 drought hit the study area particularly hard. The City of Santa Barbara was dependent exclusively on local sources for its water supply. That made it vulnerable as the regional climate is prone to extreme variability and recurrent droughts. The 1986–1992 drought provided a rare opportunity to assess the sensitivity of municipal water use to pricing, conservation, and other water management measures under extreme drought conditions. Our analysis indicates that the average cost of water rose more than three-fold in real terms from 1986 to 1996, while the gap between the average cost of supply and the average revenue per unit of water (= 100 cubic feet) rose in real terms from $0.14 in 1986 to $ 0.75 in 1996. The rise of $3.08 in the average cost of supplying one unit of water between 1986 and 1996 measures the cost of hedging drought risk in the study area. Water use dropped 46 percent at the height of the drought relative to pro-drought water use, and remains at 61 percent of the pre-drought level. The data derived from the 1987–1992 California drought are unique and valuable insofar as shedding light on drought/water demand adaptive interactions. The experience garnered on drought management during that unique period points to the possibilities available for future water management in the Arid West where dwindling water supplies and burgeoning populations are facts that we must deal with.     

DEVELOPING COMPETITION FOR WATER IN THE URBANIZING AREAS OF COLORADO1

ABSTRACT: Rapid population growth in the metropolitan area of Denver, Colorado, is causing conflicts over water use. Two cities, Thomton and Westminster, have begun condemnation proceedings against three irrigation companies to secure agricultural water rights for municipal use. This is the first condemnation proceeding against irrigation water rights for municipal use. Should the suit succeed, over 30,000 acres of presently irrigated land will lose its water supply. There are about four hundred landowners in the area; two hundred of these are commercial farmers, including truck, dairy and specialty farms. Total agricultural production amounts to about $8 million per year. About 561 jobs related to agriculture will disappear along with about $4 million in not income. Only 6.4 percent of the farmland along the Front Range is irrigated. Continued urban growth will put pressure on the water supply of much of this land. The interested parties of the region should cooperate to lessen the impact of urban growth on agricultural lands and water by forming a metropolitan water district. Such a district could share costs of development of additional municipal water and develop systems where municipalities would recycle waste water back to the irrigated lands.     

AGGREGATE MARGINAL RETURNS FROM WESTERN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE1

ABSTRACT: Pressure is increasing in the western United States to reallocate water from irrigated agriculture to other competitive uses. Since water is normally allocated through water rights and not necessarily by the price system, the question of economic efficiency is a continual concern. Study results show that returns per acre-foot of water used in western irrigation are quite high and are closely tied to the livestock industry. Returns per acre-foot of water used for crops ranged from $60 to $1,500. When water was used to support livestock, returns per acre-foot ranged from $100 to $600. Clearly, losses of water supply that reduced irrigation production could also lower farm income significantly. Estimated returns also show what alternative uses would have to pay for water under competitive market conditions. Production elasticities are also shown for various states.     

Situational Waste in Landscape Watering: Residential and Business Water Use in an Urban Utah Community1

Abstract: Landscape water conservation is an important issue for municipalities throughout the Western United States, and especially in Utah as rapid growth strains existing water supplies. We conducted interdisciplinary research in Layton, Utah, that aimed at understanding patterns of landscape water use among households and businesses. The research project involved three basic tasks. First, a landscape “water budget” was developed by producing a calibrated and classified mosaic of landscape type and area from airborne multispectral digital imagery, integrating this information with Layton City parcel boundary data to determine landscape vegetated areas per lot, and estimating irrigation needs derived from reference evapotranspiration (ETo) obtained using weather data for the Salt Lake City metropolitan region. Second, utilizing Layton water billing data, water use for each household and business was identified and categorized as “conserving,”“acceptable” or “wasteful” by determining how much the water applied varied from actual landscape plant need. Third, surveys were administered to a random stratified sample of households and businesses in the study area to investigate various factors that were hypothesized to be predictive of wasteful watering practices. This paper primarily focuses on analysis of the household and business survey data, which explores factors affecting urban landscape water use from a human behavioral perspective. We found that the most significant factors predicting actual water use were the type of irrigation system and whether the location was a household or business. Attitudinal and motivational characteristics were not consistently associated with water use. We found that wasteful watering is the result of many factors embedded in the complex context of urban landscapes. This implies that water conservation programs should identify potential wasteful users through analyses of water billing data and direct water conservation measures at these users by focusing on site‐specific evaluations and recommendations. Water audits or water checks are one such tool that some communities have employed to help people understand and assess the quantity of water needed by and applied to their landscapes. This approach provides an opportunity to evaluate situational constraints at particular locations and design appropriate strategies for reducing water waste.     

WATER QUALITY IN SHALLOW ALLUVIAL AQUIFERS,UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN,COLORADO, 19971

ABSTRACT: Shallow ground water in areas of increasing urban development within the Upper Colorado River Basin was sampled for inorganic and organic constituents to characterize water‐quality conditions and to identify potential anthropogenic effects resulting from development. In 1997, 25 shallow monitoring wells were installed and sampled in five areas of urban development in Eagle, Grand, Gunnison, and Summit Counties, Colorado. The results of this study indicate that the shallow ground water in the study area is suitable for most uses. Nonparametric statistical methods showed that constituents and parameters measured in the shallow wells were often significantly different between the five developing urban areas. Radon concentrations exceeded the proposed USEPA maximum contaminant level at all sites. The presence of nutrients, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds indicate anthropogenic activities are affecting the shallow ground‐water quality in the study area. Nitrate as N concentrations greater than 2.0 mg/L were observed in ground water recharged between the 1980s and 1990s. Low concentrations of methylene blue active substances were detected at a few sites. Total coliform bacteria were detected at ten sites; however, E. coli was not detected. Continued monitoring is needed to assess the effects of increasing urban development on the shallow ground‐water quality in the study area.     

DESALTING SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION A CASE STUDY,COACHELLA AREA,CALIFORNIA1

ABSTRACT .A case study was performed to evaluate potential applications of desalted saline water for agriculture using 2 distillation type processes and 2 membrane type processes. The investigation determined the costs and benefits associated with desalting saline water at concentrations of 1,500, 900, 400, 200, and 50 ppm. Benefits from desalting are generated by shifts to more profitable crops, reduced costs for drainage, and reduction in fertilizer and labor requirements with better quality water. Costs are based on the project features such as desalting plants, raw water diversion facilities, storage reservoirs, conveyance and distribution systems, brine disposal, blending facilities, and gypsum addition systems. Hydrologic studies determined the crop irrigation requirements, water demand schedules, desalted water storage requirements, brine disposal requirements, and size of facilities required. Reconnaissance design layouts were made for producing desalted water using a combination of 14 schemes. The study also included a review of irrigation practices. The benefit-cost ratios range from 0.4 to 1.0 for 1,500 ppm irrigation water to 0.8 to 1.0 for 50 and 200 ppm water. Investment costs per acre are high, ranging from $12,900 to $20,900. Irrigation benefits are based on the increase in production from a desert condition with no water supply to the irrigation conditions studied.     

Quantifying the influence of environmental and water conservation attitudes on household end use water consumption

Within the research field of urban water demand management, understanding the link between environmental and water conservation attitudes and observed end use water consumption has been limited. Through a mixed method research design incorporating field-based smart metering technology and questionnaire surveys, this paper reveals the relationship between environmental and water conservation attitudes and a domestic water end use break down for 132 detached households located in Gold Coast city, Australia. Using confirmatory factor analysis, attitudinal factors were developed and refined; households were then categorised based on these factors through cluster analysis technique. Results indicated that residents with very positive environmental and water conservation attitudes consumed significantly less water in total and across the behaviourally influenced end uses of shower, clothes washer, irrigation and tap, than those with moderately positive attitudinal concern. The paper concluded with implications for urban water demand management planning, policy and practice.     

The Impacts of Water Conservation Strategies on Water Use: Four Case Studies1

Tsai, Yushiou, Sara Cohen, and Richard M. Vogel, 2011. The Impacts of Water Conservation Strategies on Water Use: Four Case Studies. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(4):687‐701. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00534.x Abstract: We assessed impacts on water use achieved by implementation of controlled experiments relating to four water conservation strategies in four towns within the Ipswich watershed in Massachusetts. The strategies included (1) installation of weather‐sensitive irrigation controller switches (WSICS) in residences and municipal athletic fields; (2) installation of rainwater harvesting systems in residences; (3) two outreach programs: (a) free home indoor water use audits and water fixture retrofit kits and (b) rebates for low‐water‐demand toilets and washing machines; and (4) soil amendments to improve soil moisture retention at a municipal athletic field. The goals of this study are to summarize the effectiveness of the four water conservation strategies and to introduce nonparametric statistical methods for evaluating the effectiveness of these conservation strategies in reducing water use. It was found that (1) the municipal WSICS significantly reduced water use; (2) residences with high irrigation demand were more likely than low water users to experience a substantial demand decrease when equipped with the WSICS; (3) rainwater harvesting provided substantial rainwater use, but these volumes were small relative to total domestic water use and relative to the natural fluctuations in domestic water use; (4) both the audits/retrofit and rebate programs resulted in significant water savings; and (5) a modeling approach showed potential water savings from soil amendments in ball fields.     

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATING AGRICULTURAL WATER CONSERVATION POTENTIALS1

ABSTRACT: This paper defines types of water losses in irrigated agriculture and outlines potentials for water conservation. Recoverable water “losses” (seepage, leakage, and spillage during storage and conveyance, and surface runoff and deep percolation during irrigation) and irrecoverable losses (evaporation from water and soil surfaces and transpiration from plants) are described and illustrated. Some conservation terms are defined, particularly the distinction between on-farm irrigation efficiency and areawide efficiency. Briefly reviewed are agricultural water conservation technologies and their applicability. The biggest untapped potential for water conservation may be a reduction in irrecoverable losses, especially evapotranspiration. The advantages and disadvantages of reducing recoverable and irrecoverable water losses are described, including possible effects on ground water, energy, salinity, crops, wildlife, and in-stream uses. Such information may be useful in several policy and management issues, e.g., ground water overdraft and possible constraints on crops and sites to be irrigated.     

WATER CONSERVATION METHODS IN URBAN LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION: AN EXPLORATORY OVERVIEW1

ABSTRACT: The increasing use of irrigation for urban landscapes is causing new demands for efficient watering systems. Conservation techniques for irrigated agricultural fields cannot be applied to urban landscapes without amendment. This paper attempts to review methods of urban landscape water conservation in the context of the diversity and complexity of urban landscapes and the demands upon them for quality of the urban environment. A development's initial site layout and planting design fundamentally determine how much irrigation water will be required; the complexity and creativity inherent in urban design open a number of specific possibilities for reducing water demand. Irrigation hardware is then designed to deliver the required volume of water to the specified landscape efficiently by implementing a number of physical and operational principles. Maintenance of the finished development involves monitoring results and making adjustments as the plantings grow and develop. The potential for conserving urban irrigation water is large. Effective conservation need not compromise other qualities of the urban environment such as aesthetics, screening, or shade. Urban design can address both the kinds of landscapes people need, and minimal consumption of irrigation water.     

The Effect of Water Harvesting Techniques on Runoff,Sedimentation, and Soil Properties

This study addressed the hydrological processes of runoff and sedimentation, soil moisture content, and properties under the effect of different water harvesting techniques (treatments). The study was conducted at three sites, representing environmental condition gradients, located in the southern part of the West Bank. For each treatment, the study evaluated soil chemical and physical properties, soil moisture at 30 cm depth, surface runoff and sedimentation at each site. Results showed that runoff is reduced by 65–85% and sedimentation by 58–69% in stone terraces and semi-circle bunds compared to the control at the semi-humid site. In addition, stone terraces and contour ridges significantly reduced the amount of total runoff by 80% and 73%, respectively, at the arid site. Soil moisture content was significantly increased by water harvesting techniques compared to the control in all treatments at the three study sites. In addition, the difference between the control and the water harvesting structures were higher in the arid and semi-arid areas than in the semi-humid area. Soil and water conservation, via utilization of water harvesting structures, is an effective principle for reducing the negative impact of high runoff intensity and subsequently increasing soil moisture storage from rainfall. Jessour systems in the valley and stone terraces were effective in increasing soil moisture storage, prolonging the growing season for natural vegetation, and decreasing the amount of supplemental irrigation required for growing fruit trees.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE IN CONTROLLING AGRICULTURAL RUNOFF1

Abstract: Agricultural runoff, such as dissolved mineral salts and selenium, creates pronounced downstream impacts to agricultural producers and to wildlife. The ability to manage these problems efficiently depends critically on the institutional pricing structure of irrigation water delivery agencies. An important characteristic of irrigation water delivery is whether irrigators pay per unit of water received or make one payment regardless of the quantity of water received. In this study we compare the effectiveness of agricultural runoff reduction policies in two regions that employ these different water pricing structures. We find that reduction policy is more effective and can be achieved at a lower cost when water is priced on a per unit basis and that growers have greater incentive to act on their own to reduce runoff problems. Operating under a per unit pricing system encourages water conservation and runoff reduction, which creates public benefits that are not achieved under the single-payment, fixed allotment method of irrigation water delivery.     

ON‐FARM WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN SOUTHERN ALBERTA1

ABSTRACT: In southern Alberta, as elsewhere, pressures on limited water supplies are increasing. Not surprisingly, a great deal of attention has been focused on irrigated agriculture, which accounts for the largest share of water consumed in the region. In order to meet broadly accepted water conservation goals, some commentators have suggested that irrigation water use should be metered and that irrigators should be charged based on the amount of water used. An alternative proposal would have water management authorities rely upon the perceived adaptability of irrigators. This paper offers a perspective on the willingness of irrigators to conserve water. Based on a survey of 183 irrigation farmers conducted over the summer and early fall of 1998, we found that irrigators are generally aware of the need to conserve water and soil moisture, and that a variety of water conserving strategies were being employed. Water saving technologies specific to irrigation agriculture were less widely adopted. The findings suggest that there is considerable potential to reduce the amount of water consumed by the irrigation sector through increased efficiency, but that change will be limited if current economic circumstances and institutional arrangements persist.     

WATER REDUCTIONS FROM RESIDENTIAL AUDITS1

ABSTRACT: The water reductions resulting from Contra Costa Water District's 1989 residential audit program are measured using a multivariate regression model. The model explains metered residential water use as a function of both conservation and other household variables. The principle conclusions drawn are that (1) installation of low-flow showerheads reduced indoor water use by 9.7 percent or 7.8 gallons per capita day, (2) the outdoor segment of the audit reduced irrigation needs by 18.7 percent, and (3) irrigation timers are being used inefficiently.