西部旅游资源应作精品开发

西部大开发给西部旅游业发展带来了机遇,同时也对西部旅游资源的保护提出了更高的要求.通过分析西部旅游资源的特点及旅游业发展中存在的问题,提出了加强区域间的规划、协调发展西部大旅游、挖掘文化内涵、提高旅游从业人员素质等打造西部旅游精品的措施.     

发展西部旅游业的冷思考

旅游开发作为西部大开发的一项重要战略措施已经得到了学术界和各级政府的高度重视。根据西部旅游业的特点，从旅游系统、旅游产业产生和发展的条件、西部旅游限制因素和可持续发展几个方面对西部旅游进行了探讨，指出西部各地区要全面地权衡自身现有的经济基础、资源优势和市场优势，切不可盲目地将旅游产业定为支柱产业，也不要将经济发展的大任仅仅寄托在旅游业上。     

嘉陵江流域旅游经济发展的限制性因素分析

嘉陵江是长江最大的支流，嘉陵江流域是长江上游重要的生态屏障。流域旅游资源丰富，但丰富的旅游资源不为世人所了解，资源本身没能发挥其应有的价值，丰富的旅游资源和流域落后的旅游经济形成强烈反差。嘉陵江流域是中国西部旅游资源极具开发潜力的一个区域，后发优势明显。分析流域旅游业发展的限制性因素，有利于流域旅游资源的开发。从流域区位条件、资源条件、经济基础、旅游市场营销、旅游基础设施和旅游服务等方面分析了制约该流域旅游经济发展的主要因素。     

中国西部地区旅游开发对策研究

我国西部旅游资源具有巨大的开发潜力,但旅游发展受到多方面的限制.旅游整合开发战略是在科学分析西部地区旅游发展优势和局限因素的基础上提出的科学决策,对西部旅游开发具有切实的指导意义.西部应着重以下工作:吸引资金,重视人才,实行政府主导型开发;改善基础设施落后面貌,做好旅游营销和宣传工作;增加资源开发的深度与广度,合理规划旅游路线,开发旅游商品;科学规划,加强监测,实行生态保护.     

香格里拉旅游地生成机制与发展模式研究

香格里拉是我国西部旅游的一支“生力军”，其发展是基于高品位的旅游资源和优越的政策环境，并顺应了市场需求。香格里拉旅游地的生成经历了较长的探索期，并没有明显的参与期，几乎直接进入了发展期。市场需求导向是香格里拉旅游地生成机制的内在逻辑，环境因素是背景，政策因素则起到了直接推动作用。香格里拉的旅游发展形成了以生态旅游为主导、以民族生态旅游接待村为发展载体、以开展藏民家访为具体形式的模式。分析认为，生态与旅游的和谐、基础设施建设、规范化管理、提高居民的参与能力是优化这种模式的路径选择。     

21世纪西部发展旅游业的资源观

丰富独特的自然景观和浓郁多彩的人文风情是西部地区发展旅游业的强大基础，但它们不能直接决定旅游业的发展水平。只有把旅游资源开发成旅游者需要的旅游产品，才能实现旅游资源的价值，发展西部旅游业。旅游产品的开发能力构成旅游地的核心竞争能力，西部只有提高旅游产品的开发能力，才能适应旅游市场的变化，不断开拓新的市场，促进旅游业水平的提高。在对西部旅游资源进行综合利用和深度开发的同时，还要注重资源的保护，进行“绿色开发”和“绿色经营”，实现资源的可持续利用。     

西部国内旅游远程市场旅游产品开发

旅游产品的开发水平是西部旅游业发展的制约因素.在西部国内旅游营销中,要把东部客源市场作为远程旅游目标市场,远程旅游产品的开发要以市场为导向.在分析东部客源市场特点的基础上,提出了西部国内旅游远程市场旅游产品的开发策略:①体现西部特色,与东部旅游产品形成互补;②以资源保护为前提,开发生态型旅游产品;③整合西部旅游资源,开发跨区域旅游精品;④协调好各旅游要素的功能,形成不同等级的旅游服务系统;⑤针对东部地区客源市场特点设计旅游产品;⑥重视老年旅游和青少年学生旅游产品的开发.     

我国西部省域旅游供给丰度效率二维组合位势与创新开发模式探析

采用2002—2013年间的样本数据,运用Malmquist生产率变化指数模型、组合赋值和超效率CCR-DEA模型对西部旅游供给的整体效率特征、各省域间旅游供给的丰度——效率二维组合位势差异进行了实证研究,提出了三种差异化区域旅游产业创新合作开发模式及策略。     

西部旅游区域市场的弱根基性

按照西部大开发的部署,西部地区包括重庆、四川、贵州、云南、西藏、陕西、甘肃、宁夏、青海、新疆、广西、内蒙古等.西部资源丰富,品种齐全,其资源恢弘博大,丰富深邃;原始奇特,垄断性强;古老珍稀,国内无双;品位佳绝,质量高超.据国家资源部统计,西部地区有国家级风景名胜区40个,国家级自然保护区44个,国家历史文化名城31个,国家级森林公园58个.然而,西部旅游业的发展落后于东部地区.那么,为什么会出现这种不对称性问题呢?笔者认为,在宏观上,国家经济不断高速发展,西部政府也大力发展旅游,在西部大开发的大好机遇下出现这一问题,主要是微观上西部旅游区域市场的弱根基性造成的,这里弱根基性是指在区域市场构成了西部较之于东部的劣势.     

资源所有权制度改革与西部地区经济发展

随着资源的开采，西部许多地区不是越来越富而是越来越穷，形成了资源富有与经济落后的强烈反差，出现了“富饶的贫困”现象。在资源所有权制度改革中应充分考虑资源利益的多主体性和不同利益主体之间的利益综合平衡，尤其需要考虑到资源所在地的利益问题，确立资源地区对属地资源的收益权，增强资源地自我约束、自我积累、自我发展的能力，才能保证西部资源的开发能有效地带动当地经济的发展。     

AN APPLICATION RUNOFF MODEL STRATEGY FOR UNGAGED WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Mathematical models for predicting watershed surface flow responses are available, most of which are elaborate nonlinear numerical surface and channel flow models linked with infiltration models. Such models may be used to make predictions for ungaged areas, assuming an acceptable fitting of the model to the topography and roughness of the real system. For some application purposes, these models are impractical because of their complexity and expensive computer solutions. A procedure is developed that uses a complex model of an ungaged area to derive a simpler parametric nonlinear system model for repetitious simulation with input sequences. The predicted flow outputs are obtained with the simpler model at significant savings of money and time. The procedures for constructing a complex kinematic model of a 40 acre (161,880 m²) reference watershed and deriving the simpler system model are outlined. The results of predictions from both models are compared with a selected set of measured events, all having essentially the same initial conditions. Peak discharges ranged from 3 to 118 ft³/sec (0.085 to 3.34 m³/sec), which includes the largest event of record. The inherent limitations of lumped systems models are demonstrated, including the bias caused by their inability to model infiltration losses after rainfall ceases. Computer costs and times for the models were compared. The derived simple model has a cost advantage when repeated use of a model is required. Such an applications hydrologic model has an engineering tradeoff of reduced accuracy, and lumping bias, but is more economical for certain design purposes.     

Conversion of temperate forests into heaths: Role of ecosystem disturbance and ericaceous plants

Fire and logging in nutrient-poor temperate forests with certain ericaceous understory plants may convert the forests into heaths. The process of disturbance-induced heath formation is documented by using examples ofCalluna in western Europe,Kalmia in Newfoundland, andGaultheria (salal) in coastal British Columbia. In a cool, temperate climate, rapid vegetative growth ofCalluna, Kalmia, and salal following disturbance results in increasing organic accumulation (paludification), nutrient sequestration, soil acidification, and allelochemicals. These are thought to be the main reasons to conifer regeneration failure in disturbed habitats. If continuation in forest is a land-use objective, then temperate forests with an ericaceous understory should not be logged unless effective silvicultural methods are devised to control the ericaceous plants and restore forest regeneration. Preharvest vegetation control may be considered as an option. Failure to control the understory plants may lead to a long-term vegetation shift, from forest to heathland, particularly in nutrient-poor sites. Successful methods of controllingKalmia andGaultheria, however, have yet to be developed. While theKalmia- andGaultheria- dominated heathlands are undesirable in Canada and the Pacific Northwest, a wide range ofCalluna heathlands of western Europe are being conserved as natural and seminatural vegetation.     

Urban ecological systems: scientific foundations and a decade of progress

Urban ecological studies, including focus on cities, suburbs, and exurbs, while having deep roots in the early to mid 20th century, have burgeoned in the last several decades. We use the state factor approach to highlight the role of important aspects of climate, substrate, organisms, relief, and time in differentiating urban from non-urban areas, and for determining heterogeneity within spatially extensive metropolitan areas. In addition to reviewing key findings relevant to each state factor, we note the emergence of tentative "urban syndromes" concerning soils, streams, wildlife and plants, and homogenization of certain ecosystem functions, such as soil organic carbon dynamics. We note the utility of the ecosystem approach, the human ecosystem framework, and watersheds as integrative tools to tie information about multiple state factors together. The organismal component of urban complexes includes the social organization of the human population, and we review key modes by which human populations within urban areas are differentiated, and how such differentiation affects environmentally relevant actions. Emerging syntheses in land change science and ecological urban design are also summarized. The multifaceted frameworks and the growing urban knowledge base do however identify some pressing research needs.     

Neighbourhood characteristics and urban gardens in the Toledo metropolitan area: staffing and voluntarism,food production,infrastructure, and sustainability practices

Urban gardens are important sources of sustenance for communities with limited access to food. Hence, this study focuses on food production in gardens in the Toledo metropolitan area in Northwest Ohio. We administered surveys to 150 garden managers from November 2014 to February 2015 in our attempt to better understand how neighbourhood racial composition and poverty levels are related to staffing and voluntarism, food production and distribution, the development of infrastructure, and the adoption of sustainability practices in urban gardens. The results from 30 gardens are presented in this paper. We used Geographic Information Systems to map the gardens and overlay the map with 2010 census data so that we could conduct demographic analyses of the neighbourhoods in which the gardens were located. Though the gardens were small – two acres or less – up to 46 varieties of food were grown in a single garden. Gardens also operated on small budgets. Food from the gardens was gifted or shared with friends, family, and neighbourhood residents. Gardens in predominantly minority neighbourhoods tended to have fewer institutional partners, less garden infrastructure, and had adopted fewer sustainable practices than gardens in predominantly White neighbourhoods. Nonetheless, residents of predominantly minority and high-poverty neighbourhoods participated in garden activities and influenced garden operations. Volunteering and staffing were racialised and gendered.     

Predicting deer-vehicle collisions in an urban area

Collisions with deer and other large animals are increasing, and the resulting economic costs and risks to public safety have made mitigation measures a priority for both city and wildlife managers. We created landscape models to describe and predict deer-vehicle collision (DVCs) within the City of Edmonton, Alberta. Models based on roadside characteristics revealed that DVCs occurred frequently where roadside vegetation was both denser and more diverse, and that DVCs were more likely to occur when the groomed width of roadside right-of-ways was smaller. No DVCs occurred where the width of the vegetation-free or manicured roadside buffer was greater than 40 m. Landscape-based models showed that DVCs were more likely in more heterogeneous landscapes where road densities were lower and speed limits were higher, and where non-forested vegetation such as farmland was in closer proximity to larger tracts of forest. These models can help wildlife and transportation managers to identify locations of high collision frequency for mitigation. Modifying certain landscape and roadside habitats can be an effective way to reduce deer-vehicle collisions.     

BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ESTUARINE/COASTAL POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Sustained interest in and concern about the health status of the aquatic environment has resulted in extensive research focused on (1) effects of pollution on survival, growth, and reproduction of resource species at all life stages; (2) diseases of fish and shellfish, as they may be related to pollution and as they may serve as indicators of environmental stress; and (3) contaminant body burdens in fish and shellfish - their effects on the aquatic animals and their potential effects on humans. Effects, lethal and sublethal, of pollutants on life history stages of fish and shellfish have been documented, as have impacts on local stocks in badly degraded habitats, but as yet there has been no adequate quantitative demonstration of effects on entire aquatic species - probably because of the difficulty in sorting out relative effects of the many environmental factors that influence abundance. Sublethal effects, especially those that result in disease, have been examined intensively, and some diseases and disease syndromes have been associated statistically with pollution. Other pollution indicators (biochemical, physiological, genetic, behavioral, and ecological) have also received some attention, as have body burdens of contaminants in aquatic species. Research, especially that conducted during the past decade, has done much to clarify the many pathways and toxic effects of contaminants on aquatic animals, and has also helped to identify mechanisms for survival of fish and shellfish in the presence of environmental changes caused by human activities.     

Biodiversity and biotechnology

The maintenance of biodiversity is urged from many quarters and on grounds ranging from aesthetic considerations to its usefulness, particularly for biotechnology. But regardless of the grounds for preserving biodiversity, writers are generally in agreement that it should be preserved. But, in examining the various references biodiversity, such as species diversity, genetic diversity, and habitat diversity, it is apparent that we cannot aim to preserve biodiversityas such, since there are a number of conflicts in any such undertaking. In preserving one aspect of biodiversity, we damage another aspect. Five arguments which attempt to ground our moral concern for biodiversity are reviewed and critiqued, not only for their consistency but also for their power to move us to action. The final section of the paper shows how conflicts in the values of personal and environmental health can impair ethical action and especially policy formation.An earlier version of this paper was read at the conference on Agriculture, Food, and Human Values: Tradition and Change, Orlando, Florida, October 7–9, 1987.     

Journalists' views of advertiser pressures on agricultural news

All major journalism ethical codes explicitly state that journalists should protect editorial copy from undue influence by outside sources. However, much of the previous research on agricultural information has concentrated on what information various media communicate (gatekeeping studies) or communication's role in increasing innovation adoption (diffusion studies). Few studies have concentrated specifically on organizational and structural constraints that might adversely affect agricultural journalists' ethical standards; those that have, focus largely on farm magazines. A study of newspaper reporters who cover agricultural news found that the most pressing ethical concern is the effect of advertiser (agri-business) pressure on editorial copy, and that their concerns in general parallel those of farm magazine writers and editors. The majority reported being in situations in which they might be exposed to advertiser pressure, including pressures to change or withhold editorial copy. Large minorities suggested that advertising pressures affect the overall environment in which agricultural journalists work, and more than one in ten said they allow advertiser pressures to influence editorial decisions. The newspaper reporters who cover agricultural beats showed slightly more resistance to advertiser pressure than did farm magazine editors in a parallel study.     

Definition Procedures Have Little Effect on Performance of Environmental Classifications of Streams and Rivers

Mapped environmental classifications are defined using various procedures, but there has been little evaluation of the differences in their ability to discriminate variation in independent ecological characteristics. We tested the performance of environmental classifications of the streams and rivers of France that had been defined from the same environmental data using geographic regionalization and numerical classification of individual river valley segments. Test data comprised invertebrate assemblages, water chemistry, and hydrological indexes obtained from sites throughout France. Classification performance was measured by analysis of similarity (ANOSIM). Geometric regions defined by a regular grid and without regard to environmental variables and a posteriori classifications based on clustering the test datasets defined lower and upper bounds of performance for a given number of classes. Differences in classification performances were generally small. The ANOSIM statistics for the a posteriori classifications were around twice that of all environmental classifications, including geometrically defined regions. The hydro-ecoregions performed slightly better for the invertebrate data and the network classification performed slightly better for the chemistry and hydrological data. Our results indicate that environmental classifications that are defined using different procedures can be comparable in terms of their ability to discriminate variation of ecological characteristics and that alleged differences in performance arising from different classification procedures can be small relative to unexplained variation. We conclude that definition procedures might have little effect on the performance of large-scale environmental classifications and decisions over which procedures to use should be based primarily on pragmatic considerations.     

A Social Contract for Biotechnology: Shared Visions for Risky Technologies?

Future technological developmentsconcerning food, agriculture, and theenvironment face a gulf of social legitimationfrom a skeptical public and media, in the wakeof the crises of BSE, GM food, and foot andmouth disease in the UK (House of Lords, 2000). Keyethical issues were ignored by the bioindustry,regulators, and the Government, leaving alegacy of distrust. The paper examinesagricultural biotechnology in terms of a socialcontract, whose conditions would have to be fulfilled togain acceptance of novel applications. Variouscurrent and future GM applications areevaluated against these conditions. Successwould depend critically on how far a sharedvision can be found with the public. Tore-establish trust, significant changes areidentified in the planning and pursuit ofbiotechnology.