The Use of an Ecologic Classification to Improve Water Resource Planning in New Zealand

The Resource Management Act (RMA) legislates the management of most natural resources in New Zealand. The RMA invokes ecosystem-based management by requiring that regulation be based on managing the effects of resource according to “the life supporting capacity” of the environment. The management of water resources under the RMA is carried out at the regional level by regional councils. Regional councils can develop regional water plans to establish objectives and criteria for water management. Regional water planning under the RMA has been problematic, and regional plan objectives developed under the RMA have been criticized as too broad and not sufficiently quantified. As a consequence, many resource users are unconvinced of the need for the regulatory criteria promulgated by plans, whereas other groups are concerned that the environment is inadequately protected. This article proposes that a lack of ecologically relevant management units has prevented regional water plans from fulfilling their intended function under the RMA. Then it introduces the use of River Environment Classification as a means of defining units for assessment and management, and provides three case studies that demonstrate its potential to support regional water management planning. The discussion shows that the specificity of regional assessments can be increased if ecologic variation is stratified into distinctive units (i.e., units within which variation in the characteristics of interest is reduced) as part of the assessment process. The increased specificity of the assessments increases the possibility that regional objectives and criteria for water management can be derived that are quantitative and justifiable and that provide certainty for stakeholders. The authors conclude that greater choice and meaning can be generated in regional planning processes if regional variation in ecologic characteristics is stratified using a classification, and if classes are used as units for assessment and management.     

Planning under a Co-operative Mandate: New Plans for New Zealand

The Resource Management Act 1991 provides a new mandate for effectsbased planning with its goal of sustainable management. Regional, city and district councils are responsible for administering the Act, including preparation of regional policy statements, regional and district plans. The paper reports on a collaborative research programme,funded by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and Technology. The three-year programme has two objectives: (1) to determine the quality of policy statements and plans; and (2) to identify the extent and means by which councils co-ordinate policy statements and plans. Preliminary findings on implementation of the Act are presented.     

From concept to practice: Implementing cumulative impact assessment in New Zealand

In 1991, provisions for environmental impact assessment in New Zealand were changed significantly with the enactment of the Resource Management Act. Among other provisions, this act requires consideration of cumulative impacts in environmental assessment activities undertaken by planners in newly created regional authorities and district and city councils. The institutional context in which the act is being implemented offers both opportunities and constraints to cumulative impact assessment. A lack of methods for CIA is a recognized problem. However, methods that have been developed for environmental impact assessments can be modified to incorporate second-, third-, and fourth-order impacts as well as to identify the direction and magnitude of additive and synergistic impacts. Layered matrices and combined networks are examples of such methods. While they do not allow for scientific prediction, they do provide the practitioner with the ability to consider the cumulative impacts of decisions. This is crucial in New Zealand, where statutory requirements are ahead of established methodologies.     

New Zealand's Planning Revolution Five Years On: A Preliminary Assessment

It is now five years since New Zealand radically changed its environmental planning regime by introducing the Resource ManagementAct 1991 (RMA). The RMA swept away the entire tradition of town and country planning which New Zealand had inherited from Britain, replacing this with an integrated framework for resource management that attempts to emphasize efficiency, sustainability and public participation in the new system of development control. These new emphases of the RMA reflect the agendasof New Zealand'sgreen and New Right lobbies which gained political influence during the 1980s.However,the green and neo-liberal agendaswhich the RMA attempts to embrace are potentially contradictory. In this paper we investigate this potential contradiction through a preliminary assessment of the first five year's of the new legislation's implementation.In particular, we focus on the operational success, or otherwise, of three 'efficiency' innovations of the RMA, and consider the consequences of these for the environmental and public participation ideals of the legislation.     

The integration of EIA and planning in New Zealand: changing process and practice

The Resource Management Act, passed in 1991, has significantly revised the practice of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in New Zealand. In contrast to a previous emphasis on environmental impact reports of major projects, the new requirements call for environmental impact assessment of all resource consent applications and of all regional, district and city policies and plans. This signals a change directed at incorporating environmental considerations into day‐to‐day planning decisions, with the purpose of achieving sustainable management. The paper identifies and discusses some key issues which are critical for successful integration of EIA within a planning framework.     

The role of environmental impact assessment in coal production and utilization

Large-scale exploitation of fossil fuels and nuclear power can have an adverse effect on the human and natural environment. That need not be the case, if the effect on the environment is carefully assessed to ensure the development of a sustainable approach. This paper examines the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) for coal from an international perspective. The concept of EIA is not new. A formalized process of EIA was introduced in the USA in 1970, and more recently similar legislation has been implemented in other countries. The member states of the European Community are required to adopt EIA regulations, as set out in Directive 85/337/EEC. Elsewhere, in Japan and Australia, there are requirements for EIA and a growing need for the process can be seen in developing countries. A comparison is made of the EIA process for coal in the international arena, and exemplary procedures are highlighted. Potential problems such as delays, modifications and additional costs are analysed, and the benefits of EIA, both to industry and environment, are discussed. A database of coal-related EIA would facilitate an exchange of information on the subject.     

Innovation in environmental policy: the National Environmental Policy Act of the US and the Resource Management Act of New Zealand

On enactment, both the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1970 of the US and the Resource Management Act (RMA), 1991 of New Zealand received accolades for innovativeness. However, is such praise justified when these acts are explored through the literature on policy innovation? This paper suggests that it is. More importantly, recognizing how different attributes of innovation contribute to having a policy adopted suggests what the crafters of future environmental policies might do well to consider. It is critical to attend to the political climate in which a policy is being drafted.     

Comparative Analysis of New Zealand and US Approaches for Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution Management

The role of the central government in New Zealand is generally limited to research and policy development, and regional councils are responsible for most monitoring and management of the problem. The role of the federal government in the United States includes research and monitoring, policy development, and regulation. States also have a significant management role. Both countries rely on voluntary approaches for NPS pollution management. Very few national water quality standards exist in New Zealand, whereas standards are widely used in the United States. Loading estimates and modeling are often used in the United States, but not in New Zealand. A wide range of best management practices (BMPs) are used in the United States, including buffer strips and constructed/engineered wetlands. Buffer strips and riparian management have been emphasized and used widely in New Zealand. Many approaches are common to both countries, but management of the problem has only been partly successful. The primary barriers are the inadequacy of the voluntary approach and the lack of scientific tools that are useful to decision-makers. More work needs to be performed on the evaluation of approaches developed in both countries that could be applied in the other countries. In addition, more cooperation and information/technology transfer between the two countries should be encouraged in the future.     

Evaluating environmental plan quality: the case of planning for sustainable development in New Zealand

This study examines the quality of local and regional environmental plans produced under New Zealand's Resource Management Act (RMA) of 1991, which sets forth a national sustainable development strategy. Plan quality characteristics are defined and used as criteria for plan evaluation. A key finding is that planning programmes have significantly advanced since passage of the RMA, but that high quality plans are not necessarily produced by simply passing mandate legislation. Implications of study findings for sustainable development initiatives in other countries and for future research are presented.     

Monitoring and adaptive management: resolving social and organisational issues to improve information sharing in natural resource management

Adaptive, or 'learning by doing', approaches are often advocated as a means of providing increased understanding within natural resource management. However, a number of organisational and social issues need to be resolved if these approaches are to be used successfully. A case study in the South Island high country of New Zealand is used to review what is needed to support an ongoing community-based monitoring and adaptive management programme. First, the case study is described, paying attention to the social context of the resource management problem. The results of a workshop that explored this problem are then outlined, along with a proposed information flow suggested by participants. Requirements for future steps to resolve these problems (such as information protocols and a multi-stakeholder information system) are discussed. Finally, some broad lessons are drawn from this exercise that could help others developing similar approaches.     

EIA — Its potential application to appropriate technology in developing countries

Summary Many developed countries in the Western world employ some form of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). A number of sophisticated procedures are used for the assessment of the impact of large- scale developments upon the environment. In developing countries there are both large-scale schemes that are often financed by foreign aid, and small-scale projects in which technology is less sophisticated but more appropriate to human needs. Standard EIA procedures are followed for large-scale developments but assessment of the impact of small-scale projects is often ignored.This paper attempts to define appropriate technology and to describe some of the often less apparent adverse effects of such technology upon society and the environment. The need for assessment of small-scale projects is established and the possibility of applying current EIA procedures to such developments is considered. The final paragraphs refer to the advantages and disadvantages of environmental impact assessment of small-scale technology.Dr Pamela M. Goode and Alastair I. Johnstone are both members of staff at the Environmental Institute, University of Salford, UK.     

旅游专项规划环境影响评价探讨

旅游专项规划环境影响评价是我国新颁布的环境影响评价法所规定的一种新的环境影响评价形式。应以生态旅游理论为指导，突出反映规划环境影响评价的特点，引入区域环境影响评价的方法学开展旅游专项规划环境影响评价工作。文中对旅游专项规划环境影响评价的要点及指标体系进行了系统探讨。     

Mainstreaming environmental impact assessment as a tool for environmental management in Ethiopia: Current challenges and directions for future improvements

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was first entered into force in the United States of America in 1969 through the National Environmental Policy Act. Since then, the EIA was implemented in many other countries. In Ethiopia, EIA was formally introduced in 2002 by Proclamation No. 299/2002 after the establishment of the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) in 1995 and the formulation of the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE) in 1997. This study, which is based on a document review, interviews, and the application of a survey questionnaire, analyzes the procedures and practices of the Ethiopian EIA system, seeks to clarify fundamental information regarding the EIA system and characteristics of the key elements of EIA processes, and finally, offers suggestions that could improve EIA practices in the country. The overall result of this study shows that Ethiopia adopted EIA procedures that are similar to western models; however, despite approximately 15 years of experience, its implementation is still poor to the point that the use of EIA as an instrument of environmental management could be questioned. The challenges identified by this study include institutional, organizational, and professional capacity gaps, which, in turn, have resulted in constraints ranging from improper screening, scoping, and production of EIA reports to ineffective review, monitoring, and post‐project evaluation. Additional challenges to the system include poor governance and corruption, rapid economic growth, and the mushrooming of micro‐ and small‐scale enterprises that cause pollution and environmental degradation. This article also provides comprehensive suggestions to improve EIA practices in Ethiopia.     

Environmental Impact Assessment in Victoria: Australian Discretion Rules EA!

Victoria enacted EIA legislation in 1978, before any other state in Australia. The current EIA system, which is administered by the state government, is based upon non-mandatory guidelines which are far more comprehensive than the provisions of the law they elaborate. As it has matured, Victoria's EIA system has developed requirements for the consideration of alternatives, screening, scoping (with project-specific outlines), EIA report-quality checks, proponent response to public comment and the preparation of a ministerial assessment report containing recommendations. The use of consultative committees to advise on scoping and EIA report preparation is one of several public participation provisions. EIA system evaluation criteria are advanced and used to help in reviewing the largely discretionary Victorian system, elements of which could serve as an example to other jurisdictions with incomplete EIA legislative requirements, such as the U.K.     

城市边缘旅游新区的开发模式--以西安曲江新区为例

作为城市边缘的旅游新区开发,既是城市化发展的需要,也是提升区域旅游业竞争力的要求.开发旅游新区,整合区域旅游资源,打造旅游特色,已成为各个区域旅游业发展的必然选择.以西安曲江旅游新区的开发为例证,从新区功能定位、空间组织以及旅游特色塑造等方面阐释了城市新区的开发模式,即功能定位的"三维视角","主-次中心组团式"的空间组织模式以及旅游产品开发的"三优模式",可为其它城市边缘旅游新区的开发提供可资借鉴的典型案例.     

Adapting to changing climate risk by local government in New Zealand: institutional practice barriers and enablers

Adaptation to climate change has been reviewed in several developed nations, but in none where consideration of the effects of climate change is required by statute and devolved to local government. We examine the role of institutional arrangements, the players operating under them, the barriers and enablers for adaptation decision-making in the developed nation of New Zealand. We examine how the roles and responsibilities between national, regional and local governments influence the ability of local government to deliver long-term flexible responses to changing climate risk. We found that the disciplinary practices of law, engineering and planning, within legal frameworks, result in the use of static mechanisms which create inflexible responses to changing risk. Several enablers are identified that could create greater integration between the different scales of government, including better use of national policy instruments, shared professional experience, standardised information collection and risk assessment methods that address uncertainties. The framing of climate risk as dynamic and changing that differentiates activities over their lifetime, development of mechanisms to fund transitions towards transformational change, are identified as necessary conditions for delivering flexible responses over time.     

京津冀协同发展的生态环境保护战略研究

随着中共中央在2014年将京津冀协同发展上升为国家战略,京津冀区域再次成为我国北方重要的经济增长极。然而,京津冀地区当前环境形势仍十分严峻,是全国水资源最短缺,大气污染、水污染最严重的区域,生态环境是京津冀协同发展需要尽快补齐的突出短板。本文深刻分析了京津冀区域当前大气、水、生态三个领域存在的突出问题以及内在的体制机制不协调。在此基础上,明确了解决京津冀生态环保总体思路,并分别从环境功能区划、生态保护红线、大气联防联控、跨界水环境治理、环境监管联动以及体制政策创新等方面提出针对性解决措施,为国家开展京津冀生态环境协同治理提供参考借鉴。     

我国现行环境影响评价制度面临的问题与对策

环境影响评价制度在我国经过近30年的发展与完善,在有效加强环境管理,从源头上防止环境污染和生态环境破坏方面起到了重要作用。但从现实看,其并未能从根本上遏制我国生态环境的恶化,各级政府的发展观、环境职能部门的独立性和公正性、评价机构的中立性、环境报告编制的技术性缺失和环境影响评价制度的缺憾等问题都严重制约着环境影响评价的作用发挥,只有解决这些问题,通过完善制度、科学评价,公正审批和有效监督才能让环境影响评价真正成为环境的守护神,实现经济社会发展与自然的和谐。     

Environmental impact assessment: An international evaluation

Experiences with environmental impact assessment (EIA) in a number of countries are discussed in the light of both explicit and implicit goals and objectives. Adequate environmental information is not always available to decision makers because of failure to apply EIA to all relevant decisions, the continuing inadequacies of prediction and evaluation techniques, the failure to consider alternatives adequately, and the bias of some EISs. EIA frequently results in changes to proposals and may result in stricter environmental management conditions in some cases, but some people regard it as a failure because it has not stopped development. Generally, EIA leads to better integration of environmental factors into project planning. Open procedures and freedom of information encourage responsiveness to EIA procedures, which can be weakened by discretionary powers and lack of access to the courts by public interest groups. However, legal standing may have side effects that offset its advantages. EIA can encourage cooperation and coordination between agencies but does not ensure them. Similarly, it can have a limited role in coordinating interstate and international policies. In the long term, the success of EIA depends on adequate monitoring, reassessment, and enforcement over the life of the project. EIA has generally opened up new opportunities for public participation, and may help to reduce conflict. EIA procedures need to be integrated with other environmental protection and development control programs, and various means exist for reducing its cost to developers and the public.     

Environmental impact assessment in flanders,belgium: An evaluation of the administrative procedure

Two years of experience with EIA in Flanders (northern Belgium) was evaluated in order to gain perspective on the effectiveness of the administrative procedure. The four essential characteristics of the EIA procedure that were evaluated are: completeness, open and public character, objectivity, and verifiability. Representatives of all parties involved in the EIA procedure were interviewed. The result of the evaluation is a list of major problems with EIA. Recommendations for a more efficient procedure are suggested at a time when a proposal for a new, comprehensive, and permanent EIA decree is being discussed. The evaluation of the administrative procedure for EIA in Flanders shows that several vital characteristics of the EIA procedure are lacking. This reduces the obligatory and open nature of the process, resulting in insufficient guarantees that the environment receives the altention it deserves during the decision-making process.