Bridging the gap between ecosystem service assessments and land-use planning through Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)

Land-use planning is an important determinant for green space policy in cities. It defines land covers and hence the structure and function of urban ecosystems and the benefits these provide to humans, such as air purification, urban cooling, runoff mitigation, and recreation. The ecosystem service approach has helped to attract policy attention to these benefits but the concept remains poorly implemented in urban policy and governance. To address this gap, we advance a framework to bridge ecosystem services into policy processes through Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) as decision support tool. The paper is organized in three main parts. First, we conduct a systematic literature review to assess state-of-the-art knowledge on ecosystem service assessments through MCDA. Next, we build on insights from the literature review to develop the ‘ecosystem services policy-cycle’, a conceptual framework that merges the ‘ecosystem service cascade’ and ‘policy cycle’ models to reinforce the link between ecosystem service assessments and practical applications in urban policy and governance. Next, we illustrate the applicability of the proposed framework along an example about conflicting interests on land use and green space planning following the closure of the Airport Tempelhof in Berlin, Germany. Our results highlight the scope of MCDA as a decision support tool for integrating ecosystem service assessments in green space governance. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of different methodological choices in the use of MCDA in ecosystem service assessments and note that a key strength of this tool in informing green space policies lies in its capacity to accommodate conflicting stakeholder perspectives and to address trade-offs between ecological, social and economic values.     

基于“情境—结构—行为—结果”分析的上海市低效工业用地减量化治理

探索低效工业用地减量化治理对优化土地资源利用格局、促进产业升级和城市高质量发展具有重要意义。在分析低效工业用地治理复杂系统特征的基础上,建构“情境—结构—行为—结果”分析框架,以超大城市上海市为例,采用扎根分析方法,揭示减量化过程和运行机理。结果显示：（1）低效工业用地减量化具有规划限制性、公共利益性和乡村嵌入性特征,由外部环境、用地效益、主体角色和减量化治理共同构成“外缘—内核”式的复杂适应系统。（2）建设用地“天花板”刚性约束下的宏观资源—环境—发展压力与微观用地效益是减量化的外部情境;内源性主体治理能力不足与外源性主体基于公共利益主动介入共同构成基于价值共享的治理结构;刚性政策、激励政策和支持政策形成了“三元互补”系统推动了集体行动;结果则呈现出城市高质量发展与资源再配置的协调,而平衡生态保护与经济发展、解决减量化短期压力将成为持续开展减量化的重点与难点。研究结果可为长三角其他城市开展低效工业用地治理提供经验和案例的借鉴。     

干旱区城市化对生态系统碳库的影响——以乌鲁木齐市为例

城市化是影响区域生态系统碳循环的主要原因,也是评估生态系统碳循环的最大不确定因素。论文利用1990与2010年Landsat TM数据,基于V-I-S城市土地覆被模型和决策树分类法,获得乌鲁木齐土地变化时空格局;结合野外实测数据和文献检索得到研究区不同土地覆被类型的土壤与植被碳密度,估算了城市土地变化对生态系统碳库的影响。结果表明：1）1990—2010年间,乌鲁木齐城市不透水地表（impervious surface areas, ISA）以中部南部内部填充与北部扩张的形式约增加62%,主要占用农田（27%）与荒漠（62%）。2）乌鲁木齐市生态系统碳库主体（95%）分布在土壤中,城市土地覆被变化导致约25%的碳库损失,由农田、裸土/残存荒漠以及城市绿地转变为ISA解释了68%的土壤有机碳和63%的植被碳损失量,其空间分布与ISA的扩张相一致。城市植被及其土壤具有较高的碳密度,合理的城市规划可以抵消部分因土地变化而损失的生态系统碳。     

Toward livable and healthy urban streets: Roadside vegetation provides ecosystem services where people live and move

Fostering ecosystem services in urban road corridors is an important challenge for urban planning and governance because residents are often exposed to environmental pressures in these ubiquitous open spaces. We here aim at illustrating multiple ecosystem services that may be underpinned by roadside vegetation. Previous work is broadly scattered in papers from the natural and social sciences and biased by a focus both on regulating services (temperature regulation, air filtration, carbon sequestration) and also on trees. We provide a first synthesis that illustrates (i) the multi-functional capacity of green elements in streetscapes to deliver various ecosystem services; (ii) the relevance of planted and wild-grown herbaceous vegetation as well as trees; and (iii) trade-offs between certain ecosystem services as well as risks related to disservices. Trees and herbaceous road vegetation can mitigate adverse environmental conditions in road corridors, which is particularly important in vulnerable neighborhoods that are undersupplied with green spaces. Enhancing the amenity value of streetscapes might also positively influence public health by promoting physical activity. However, significant knowledge gaps exist, e.g. on the contribution of biodiversity to ecosystem services and on the valuation of green street components by different sociocultural groups. Our synthesis illustrates management options that can support planning and governance approaches toward more livable streetscapes by fostering ecosystem services and counteracting disservices.     

城市空气中铅在国槐树体内的积累

研究了山西省太原市、榆次市和太谷县城3个规模大小和污染程度不同的城市,主要街道两侧行道树国槐杖叶内铅内铅的含量．结果表明：国槐对街道污染空气中的铅有很强的吸收和富集作用．枝条内含铅量与街道上交通车辆密度呈正相关,最高含铅量区域在太原市火车站和五一广场一带从市区中心向郊外延伸空气污染强度减弱,国槐枝叶内含铅量也呈梯度降低趋势3个城市的国槐枝叶内含铅量与其污染强度相吻合一年四季国槐都能通过枝、叶吸收和积累铅污染物,但其含量与树木生理活动、生长周期密切相关     

城市化对城市森林组成和结构的影响——以上海“城-郊”样带为例

由于城市森林可改善人居环境并提高居民的生活环境质量而备受关注,而城市化进程的加剧使生态系统的结构也发生了很大变化。论文以快速城市化进程中上海“城-郊”样带为例,基于地理信息技术,采用景观格局分析和数理统计方法,有效量化“城-郊”样带;并借助植被功能分类的相关理论,以乔木组成和结构变化为载体,探讨城市化程度对城市森林的影响。结果表明：1）城区乔木丰富度指数（S）、Shannon-Wiener指数（H）和Simpson指数（D）高于郊区,二者存在显著性差异（P<0.05）;但城区和郊区乔木物种均匀度分别为0.448±0.043和0.394±0.038,不存在显著差异（P>0.05）。2）城区乔木的密度小于郊区,分别为248±25和472±57株/hm²;且二者间存在显著性差异（P<0.05）。3）城区和郊区的城市森林群落的生长潜能存在一定的差异,郊区具有较多数量的高生长潜能乔木,而城区中低生长潜能的常绿乔木密度比郊区高;4）城区、郊区中各胸径量级的乔木数量分布均呈倒J型曲线。通过该研究以期促进城市森林生态系统服务功能发挥的同时也为进行城市森林的管理提供科学依据。     

Designing a knowledge co-production operating space for urban environmental governance—Lessons from Rotterdam,Netherlands and Berlin,Germany

Challenges for a sustainable urban development are increasingly important in cities because urbanization and related land take come up with negative challenges for the environment and for city residents. Searching for successful solutions to environmental problems requires combined efforts of different scientific disciplines and an active dialogue between stakeholders from policy and society. In this paper, we present a comparative assessment of the way policy-science dialogues have achieved knowledge co-production about strategic urban environmental governance action using the cities of Berlin in Germany and Rotterdam in the Netherlands as case studies. The ecosystem services framework is applied as a lens for policy–science interaction and a ‘knowledge co-production operating space’ is introduced. We show how policy officers, urban planners, practitioners and scientists learned from each other, and highlight the impact of this knowledge co-production for governance practice. We found that the concerted collaboration and co-creation between researchers and policy officers have led to mutual learning and establishment of relationships and trust in both cities. Not only the policy-relevance of research and its policy uptake were achieved but also new insights for research blind spots were created. In our conclusions we reflect on co-production processes with two types of conditions that we introduced to be most influential in the way knowledge can be co-created. These are conditions that relate to the way knowledge co-production processes are set-up and, conditions that relate to the expected value or benefit that the co-produced knowledge will bring across society, policy and practice.     

论农村居民点用地混合利用的研究框架

土地混合利用倡导不同使用性质/功能用地的混合布局,是提高经济发展活力与土地利用集约度的重要途径。当前,土地混合利用主要应用于城市用地演变与规划实践领域,伴随着城乡互动加剧,城乡界限趋于模糊,经济发达地区的农村居民点用地内部结构与功能逐渐多样化,也呈现显著的混合利用特征。基于此,尝试将土地混合利用应用到农村居民点用地演变与规划中,在回顾土地混合利用理论及其应用的基础上,按照“内涵特征—定量测度—驱动机理—实践路径”的逻辑思路,对经济发达地区的农村居民点用地混合利用进行系统解析,并以天津都市郊区的姚村为例实证本文提出的研究框架,在理论上丰富农村居民点用地转型的内容与方法,在实践中为编制村庄规划、助推乡村振兴提供科学支撑。     

黄河流域城市绿地生态需水时空特征分析

界定了城市绿地生态需水和生态灌溉需水的内涵与特征,构建了城市绿地生态需水和生态灌溉需水的计算模型,对黄河流域45个地级以上城市的绿地生态需水与生态灌溉需水进行计算与分析.研究结果表明:①黄河流域城市绿地年生态需水量为44 749.7×104m3,年生态灌溉需水量为22 783.5×104m3.约占2000年黄河流域城市市区供水总量的4.85%.其中90.2%的生态灌溉需水集中在绿地植物的生长期(4～10月份);②植物需水和生态灌溉需水表现出不同的月变化趋势和空间分异规律.月生态灌溉需水的计算结果为黄河流域城市绿地生态用水的合理配置提供了科学依据.     

城乡用地遥感识别与时空变化研究进展

土地利用/覆被变化在全球环境变化和可持续发展研究中具有极其重要的意义。论文在国内外土地利用/覆被变化研究梳理的基础上,从城乡用地遥感识别和时空变化两个方面归纳和总结了国内外土地利用/覆被变化的研究前沿和进展。研究发现在遥感和GIS技术支撑下土地利用/覆被变化研究形成了独特的研究范式,多分析方法、多数据源和多时段融合成为当前研究的重要趋势。目前在城乡生活-生产-生态空间识别研究领域取得了较大进展,但仍然存在“重城市和大城市、轻中小城市和城镇”的问题。时空变化研究重点从城市和乡村两个地域单元展开。城市扩张和城市蔓延的原因、后果、特征、过程、格局、模式和测度方法成为城市土地利用研究重点。耕地保护和乡村居民点变化研究成为乡村土地利用研究的两大核心。在研究取向上总体呈现出重城市轻乡村的趋势。当前研究应该以问题为导向、注重应用出口的探寻,构建适合中国国情的研究框架,鼓励多学科、多领域的综合交叉借鉴,创新理论和方法,打造本土性和原创性的创新成果。     

乌鲁木齐都市圈空间变化及其发展模式研究

以乌鲁木齐都市圈为例，基于1989-2002年的LandsatTM/ETM＋卫星影像和多期城市用地信息，运用GIS空间分析功能研究了都市圈宏观与微观层次的空间变化，得出以下结论：①1989-2002年间研究区内面积增加的用地主要有农业用地、城镇用地、农村居民点与道路，增加的部分主要来源于裸地、天然植被和原有农业用地。农业用地、城镇、农村居民点和道路向北部冲积平原扩张的趋势明显，建设用地的迅速扩张在一定程度上加剧了干旱区景观的破碎化。②1998-2006年间，都市圈内各城市用地面积总体上增幅不大，但是每个城市在某些局部方位用地增幅显著，并且有向核心城市趋近的现象。核心城市乌鲁木齐主要功能用地具有一定的圈层分布特征，周边中小城市还未形成圈层结构，但是昌吉和米泉在城市外围已有较为成型的工业集中区。③都市圈在空间发展中存在核心城市拓展受限、脆弱的生态格局受到胁迫和用地不合理布局的问题，针对这些问题提出区域发展“一体化”、城镇格局“大聚小散”和职能空间“重组化”的构想。     

Relevance for decision making of spatially explicit,participatory scenarios for ecosystem services in an area of a high current demand

Participatory ecosystem services scenarios can be used to inform decision making on the sustainable or wise use of biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES). To establish the plausibility and coherency of the recently constructed Biscay participatory scenarios, and to analyze policy options for improving sustainability of land use and the supply of ecosystem services, a spatially explicit analysis of land cover change was carried out. The modelling used an innovative methodology which included feedback from key stakeholders. Our study showed that scenario mapping can be a way of testing the credibility and internal consistency of scenarios, and a methodology for making them more coherent; it was also useful for highlighting land use trade-offs. The sustainability analysis for the ES supply side showed the benefits of promoting two land use/cover trends in the Biscay region: (i) an increase of sustainable arable land in the valley zones to reinforce biocapacity and self-provisioning while preserving agroecosystems’ ES flow; and (ii) natural forest regeneration in mountainous and other zones to increase carbon storage and sequestration while enhancing biodiversity and other ES flows. We argue that even if already protected public agro-forest lands may be the best places to start promoting these changes, additional measures are needed to involve private landowners and guarantee changes at a landscape level. Finally, we reflect on the need to make complementary analyses of ES supply and demand as a way of contributing to a broad sustainability agenda.     

Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona,Spain: Insights for policy and planning

In many European cities, urban gardens are seen as increasingly important components of urban green space networks. We adopt an ecosystem services framework to assess contributions of urban gardens to the quality of of their users. First, we identify and characterize ecosystem services provided by urban gardens. Secondly, we assess the demographic and socioeconomic profile of its beneficiaries and the relative importance they attribute to different ecosystem services. Next we discuss the relevance of our results in relation to critical policy challenges, such as the promotion of societal cohesion and healthy lifestyles. Data were collected through 44 semi-structured interviews and a survey among 201 users of 27 urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain, as well as from consultation meetings with local planners. We identified 20 ecosystem services, ranging from food production over pollination to social cohesion and environmental learning. Among them, cultural ecosystem services (non-material benefits people derive from their interaction with nature) ​ stand out as the most widely perceived and as the most highly valued. The main beneficiaries of ecosystem services from urban gardens are elder, low-middle income, and migrant people. Our results about the societal importance of urban gardens ​were deemed highly relevant by the interviewed green space planners in Barcelona, who noted that our data can provide basis to support or expand existing gardening programs in the city. Our research further suggests that ecosystem services from urban gardens can play an important role in addressing several urban policy challenges in cities, such as promoting stewardship of urban ecosystems, providing opportunities for recreation and healthy lifestyles, and promoting social cohesion. We conclude that urban gardens and associated ecosystem services can play an important ​ in urban policies aimed at enhancing quality of life in cities, particularly if access to their benefits is expanded to larger segments of the population.     

基于城市规模的地方政府土地财政行为差异研究

论文从城市规模的内涵出发,分析不同城市规模的地方政府土地财政行为差异。在已有研究的基础上,论文提出了城市用地规模扩张效应、城市人口集聚效应、城市产业规模及其结构调整效应3个理论假说,以解释不同城市规模的地方政府土地财政行为差异;并通过243个地级市11 a的面板数据进行模型实证分析,检验并证实了3个理论假说。研究发现,不同规模的城市的土地财政行为背后有着不同的驱动力：1）中小城市的城市用地规模扩张对土地财政有明显的驱动;2）所有规模级别的城市的人口集聚效应对土地财政都有显著的影响,且呈现出“U”型特征;3）大城市与中小城市的第二产业规模对土地财政驱动方向不同,特大城市、中小城市第三产业规模对土地财政有正向驱动。因此,针对不同规模城市的土地财政问题及其治理,应该从土地政策、人口与户籍政策以及产业政策等方面给出差别化的调控政策。     

收缩情境下城市土地利用及其生态系统服务的研究进展

随着国际国内社会经济环境的变化,城市收缩这一新现象逐渐在我国部分城市区域空间中呈现,成为未来新型城镇化转型的挑战之一。在简要梳理城市收缩相关文献的基础上,以土地利用为主线,重点关注收缩情景下的土地利用模拟及其政策、空置土地与城市生态系统服务等方面的相关研究。研究结果表明：（1）当前对城市收缩问题的研究主要集中于人口变动和经济发展维度,对由此引发的土地利用以及生态系统变化关注较少。（2）土地利用模拟在分析和预测收缩情境下的城市土地利用变化上具有较大价值,但不同模型适用于不同研究情景,复合模型将具有更好的解释力。（3）土地利用政策的制定和实施应充分考虑经济社会各方面诉求,绿色空间存储制度是促进收缩城市可持续发展的有力措施。（4）城市收缩产生的空置土地为发展生态系统服务提供了空间,应发展适用于我国城市收缩的生态系统服务评估方法。在我国城镇化进入“存量模式”甚至“减量模式”的背景下,应加大对城市收缩情景下土地利用和生态系统维度的研究,要积极借鉴并整合资源科学、地理学、生态学、管理科学和城市规划等相关学科的研究方法,并紧密结合我国当前城市发展和空间规划所面临的现实问题,促进城市收缩研究的方法创新和收缩城市的可持续发展。     

从安全防灾到韧性建设——国土空间治理背景下韧性规划的探索与展望

新形势下城市巨系统面临更多不确定性风险与未知扰动,要求安全防灾规划从目标对象、战略定位、技术手段与规划理念等方面做出适应调整,通过韧性城市建设引领区域安全稳定发展。对韧性城市的概念起源、理论发展与实践探索进行了梳理和评述,并结合我国“多规合一”后的国土空间规划体系改革,对空间治理背景下韧性规划的内涵特征、层级类型、流程形式与公共治理进行认识与思考;并从深化韧性城市的理论构建与机理研究、转变规划编制的设计思路和实践流程、完善韧性实践中的规划传导和尺度治理、关注韧性建设中的基层治理和公众参与四个方面,提出韧性规划的实践路径展望,力求有序推进我国城市公共安全现代化治理建设。     

基于生态服务价值的上海土地利用变化影响评价

基于Costanza的生态系统服务单价和我国国情,评估了上海中心城区1947~2006年土地利用变化对区域生态系统服务功能的影响.研究表明,60年间生态系统服务功能总体下降了87.96%,可分为缓慢减少、剧烈减少、趋缓减少和缓慢上升4个阶段,各阶段生态系统服务价值年均变化分别为-278.90×104,-2451.60×104,-88.89×104,36.66×104元/a.17类生态系统服务功能中,土壤侵蚀控制、栖息地、文化功能和扰动调节功能呈正增长,其中20年来绿地面积和绿化覆盖率持续增加是侵蚀控制功能和栖息地功能显著增加的主要原因.60年来水域面积大量减少使得水分调节和水供应功能的降幅巨大,两者对中心城区生态系统服务功能减少的贡献率为63.74%和24.33%.水域、耕地、绿地、城市住宅和公共建筑用地的生态系统服务功能变化,对中心城区生态系统服务功能减少的贡献率为99.57%,5.09%,-4.09%,-0.34%, -0.22%.除水域和耕地的生态系统服务功能显著下降外,其余均有上升,其中绿地的生态系统服务价值增幅最大,年增长率为19.45%.     

黄河三角洲土地利用/土地覆被区域分异

利用多源遥感和空间数据,对黄河三角洲1984、1986、1991、1996和2001年5个不同时期的遥感数据进行处理,分析了1984年东营市建市17年来黄河三角洲土地利用/土地覆被的空间分布特征及动态变化的区域分异。现代黄河三角洲的土地利用/土地覆被类型趋于多样化,年变化率比较大;近代黄河三角洲区,以未利用地和耕地为主,土地利用/土地覆被最不稳定;黄河冲积平原区,耕地面积远高于其它地类,约占2/3,总体变化速率处于中等水平;山前冲洪积平原区,土地利用/土地覆被类型比较单一,耕地占绝对优势,土地利用/土地覆被最为稳定,年变化率最小。     

Advancing urban ecosystem governance in Rotterdam: From experimenting and evidence gathering to new ways for integrated planning

To improve quality of life as well as the adaptive capacity in the city of Rotterdam over the past 15 years there has been a lot of focus on improving green infrastructure and finding new ways for integrated planning. As many cities face similar challenges they are looking for novel approaches in urban ecosystem governance. The Rotterdam case can be an interesting example but can also reveal new questions to be researched.Before local policies and projects where developed a regional and urban green blue vision of how to improve overall quality of life using green infrastructure were developed. This provided policy frameworks for politicians, policymakers and other actors. Later on the same was done with Urban Waterplan 2, using the Rotterdam Watercity 2030 vision document as a basis. This vision was the result of a stakeholder based planning process which was made for the International Architecture Biennale 2005. Within these frameworks many interesting projects have been built and tested in the city and city region; ranging from a) a roof park over a railway yard to connect neighbourhoods to the waterfront, to b) water squares and c) digging new waterways with connected walking and biking routes. To go from projects to an overall implementation at city level required tools and approaches for better decision making. For the ‘Dakpark’ project as well as for the Zomerhofkwartier, the first climate proof neighbourhood in the city, stakeholder sessions were held and plans were drawn together with urban planners and landscape architects. To feed these processes even better and to know what would be an optimal solution for certain challenges, city data were studied and linked to scalable GIS mapping in the ‘smart city planner’. This tool gives the decision maker the possibility to quickly have an overview of an area and can be used in a stakeholder process to provide relevant additional information and to define joint projects. The tool makes it possible to do this for all 90 neighbourhoods in the city.Overall the urban ecosystem governance in the city of Rotterdam has – with trial and error- lead to a series of innovative projects. The next steps are acceleration and scaling up to city and regional level. Valuing the crucial role of green blue infrastructure for several aspects of the quality of life in cities are paramount.     

The value of urban ecosystem services in New York City: A spatially explicit multicriteria analysis of landscape scale valuation scenarios

Mapping, modeling, and valuing urban ecosystem services are important for integrating the ecosystem services concept in urban planning and decision-making. However, decision-support tools able to consider multiple ecosystem services in the urban setting using complex and heterogeneous data are still in early development. Here, we use New York City (NYC) as a case study to evaluate and analyze how the value of multiple ecosystem services of urban green infrastructure shifts with shifting governance priorities. We first examined the spatial distribution of five ecosystem services – storm water absorption, carbon storage, air pollution removal, local climate regulation, and recreation – to create the first multiple ecosystem services evaluation of all green infrastructure in NYC. Then, combining an urban ecosystem services landscape approach with spatial multicriteria analysis weighting scenarios, we examine the distribution of these ecosystem services in the city. We contrast the current NYC policy preference – which is focused on heavy investment in stormwater absorption – with a valuation approach that also accounts for other ecosystem services. We find substantial differences in the spatial distribution of priority areas for green infrastructure for the valuation scenarios. Among the scenarios we examined for NYC, we find that a scenario in which only stormwater absorption is prioritized leads to the most unevenly distributed ES values. By contrast, we find least variation in ES values where stormwater absorption, local climate regulation, carbon storage, air pollution removal, and recreational potential are all weighted equally.We suggest that green infrastructure planning strategies should include all landscape components that contribute to the production of ecosystem services and consider how planning priority alternatives generate different ecosystem services values.