Design,synthesis, antinociceptive,and anti-inflammatory properties of thiazolopyrimidine derivatives

Ten 2-(substituted benzylidene)-7-(4-chlorophenyl)-5-(furan-2-yl)-2H-thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidin-3(7H)-one derivatives were synthesized and evaluated. A series of heterocyclic, 2-(substituted benzylidene)-7-(4-chlorophenyl)-5-(furan-2-yl)-2H-thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidin-3(7H)-one were synthesized by reaction of 7-(4-chloro phenyl)-5-(furan-2-yl)-2H-thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidin-3(7H)-one with appropriately substituted aldehydes in the presence of anhydrous sodium acetate and glacial acetic acid. The antinociceptive activity was evaluated by tail-flick technique, anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by carrageenan-induced paw edema test and their ulcerogenicity index was determined. The para-substituted methyl, hydroxy, fluoro, chloro, bromo, and nitro derivatives showed significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities. The detailed synthesis, spectroscopic data, and pharmacological screening of the synthesized compounds were reported.     

Seasonal change of species composition,abundance, and reproduction of solitary entoprocts in Okinawa Island,the Ryukyu Archipelago,Japan

Monthly samplings of solitary entoprocts were carried out at Mizugama and Ginowan Fishery Port, Okinawa Island, the central Ryukyus, Japan from November 2000 to November 2001. We examined the entoproct populations on the glass slides that had been placed at the two sites for 2 months, and a total of 18,322 individuals of solitary entoprocts were recorded. They were Loxomitra mizugamaensis, L. ryukyuensis, L. tetraorganon, Loxosomella aloxiata, L. intragemmata, L. lecythifera, L. monocera, L. stomatophora, and Loxocorone allax. Our analyses indicate that (1) the abundance of solitary entoprocts in this region is high in summer and low in winter, (2) most species reproduce by budding all year round, and (3) sexual reproduction is restricted to a short period in summer (July or August).     

Feeding biology and ecological impact of an introduced nudibranch,Tritonia plebeia,New England,USA

The nudibranchTritonia plebeia (Johnston) was first observed in New England in 1983, on vertical rock walls at 7 m depth off Nahant, Massachusetts. This northern European species preys exclusively on the soft coralAlcyonium digitatum (Linneaus) in its natural habitat. At Nahant, it preyed primarily on the closely relatedAlcyonium siderium Verrill. Laboratory studies indicated that it could locate its prey by distance chemoreception and by visual orientation towards tall dark surfaces which could help it find the vertical walls, overhangs, and boulder sides where the soft corals occur. Field studies showed thatT. plebeia fed primarily on colony bases, causing extensive damage and whole colony mortality. The most important endemic predator onA. siderium, Coryphella verrucosa (Sars), preyed preferentially on hydroids, but would graze polyps off the top portions ofA. sederium colonies, causing little permanent damage to the colony, during the winter months when hydroids were scarce. AlthoughC. verrucosa occasionally behaved agonistically towardT. plebeia, there was no indication in laboratory or field studies that either nudibranch had an effect on the other's foraging through interference competition. Extensive predation byT. plebeia caused the disappearance ofA. siderium at two sites (Outer and Inner Shag Rocks) and a sharp reduction at a third site (Inner East Point). The higher mortalities at the Shag Rocks sites most likely occurred because of a simultaneous urchin (Strogylocentrotus droebachiensis) population expansion. As space among aggregates ofA. siderium opened up due toT. plebeia predation, urchins were able to forage on the vertical walls and scrape off remaining colonies. At a fourth site, Halfway Rock, whereT. plebeia were seldom present,A. siderium colonies also suffered high mortalities. This increae in mortality began nearly a year before urchin populations increased, and during a summer of abnormally high water temperatures at Halfway Rock. The high temperatures, followed by urchin predation on remaining colonies could account for the disappearance of allA. siderium colonies at this site.T. plebeia disappeared at all sites by summer 1986 andA. siderium populations have since stabilized, but community-level changes at all sites whereA. siderium were removed have persisted.     

A novel symbiosis between a cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp., an aplastidic protist, Solenicola setigera, and a diatom, Leptocylindrus mediterraneus, in the open ocean

The abundance, biomass and distribution of Solenicola setigera, a colonial heterotrophic protist found only with the centric chain-forming diatom Leptocylindusmediterraneus, are reported for four major ocean basins. The distribution is cosmopolitan, and abundances and biomass are usually low (<500 colonies l⁻¹); however, in the summer of 1993, we observed a major biomass component (range = 5 to 31 μg C l⁻¹) in the surface waters of the North Atlantic attributable to S. setigera. These colonies of S. setigera were exceptionally large, and unusual in possessing high abundances of Synechococcus sp., a normally solitary cyanobacterium, embedded in the matrix covering the cells. We hypothesize that this relationship was mutually beneficial for both Solenicola setigera and Synechococcus sp. Received: 5 January 1998 / Accepted: 22 May 1998     

Hematological studies on some Nile fishes,Tilapia nilotica,Lates niloticus,and Labeo niloticus

Hemoglobin content of 3 Nile fishes — Tilapia nilotica Linnaeus, Lates niloticus Linnaeus and Labeo niloticus Forskal— were examined. Clear differences in hemoglobin and hematocrit values were observed, and seasonal variation in the hemoglobin content of Lates niloticus and Labeo niloticus were noticed. There is a correlation between hematocrit value and hemoglobin content of the 3 species examined. The chloride content is higher in the species with lower hemoglobin content.     

Separability, partial demand systems, and consumer's surplus measures

In practice, complete demand systems are not estimated. Rather, either an incomplete demand system is estimated, or separability is invoked and a partial demand system is estimated. This paper considers the relationship between the conventional compensating variation (equivalent variation) and the corresponding welfare measure that can be derived from a partial demand system and the current budget allocation to the separable group. Even assuming the separability assumption invoked is appropriate, these partial measures provide, in general, only a limited amount of information about the compensating variation and no information about the equivalent variation. Great care is therefore needed when using partial welfare measures to evaluate policy.     

Reproductive dynamics of endeavour prawns, Metapenaeus endeavouri and M. ensis, in Albatross Bay, Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia

 The spawning patterns of two penaeid prawns, Metapenaeus endeavouri (Schmitt) and M. ensis (De Haan), were examined from data collected at 45 stations between March 1986 and March 1992. An index of population fecundity based on the abundance, proportion and fecundity of sexually mature females was used as a measure of spawning output of the prawn stock. The population fecundity index for M. ensis was higher than that for M. endeavouri. The monthly population fecundity index for M. endeavouri varied markedly among years, while that for M. ensis was consistent among years. Spawning of M. endeavouri occurred year-round, while that of M. ensis was concentrated mainly in spring (September to November). For M. endeavouri, a minor spawning, derived from a relatively small number of summer spawners, occurred in the 20 to 30 m offshore waters in summer. In early summer (after May), the major spawning group consisted of large females from the winter-spawning cohort, and the spawning area shifted to depths of 30 to 60 m. In winter (July), the major spawning, derived from the winter-spawning cohort, occurred at depths of 20 to 40 m. For M. ensis, the major spawning, derived from the spring-spawning cohort, was observed in depths <50 m and was concentrated particularly in inshore waters (<20 m) in spring. In autumn, the spawning output was mainly from the autumn-spawning cohort, which comprised but a small number of individuals. In winter, the major spawning group again consisted of the large females from the spring-spawning cohort, and spawning increased in the oceanic waters (>50 m). These results suggest that mature female M. endeavouri and M. ensis move offshore (>40 m) by May and July, respectively, and return to shallow waters (<35 m) in July and November, respectively. The monthly reproduction patterns of both species in the “effective spawning” area showed that the major spawning season for M. endeavouri is August to October and that for M. ensis is September to December. Received: 19 February 1999 / Accepted: 18 June 2000     

Environmental stress,competition and dominance of Crassostrea virginica near Beaufort,North Carolina,USA

Observations and experiments were made at 2 intertidal areas near Beaufort, North Carolina, USA from May 1977 to July 1978 to determine why the oyster Crassostrea virginica dominated the community in areas protected from wave action but not in areas directly exposed to waves. Barnacles, oysters, the green alga Enteromorpha sp. and the mussel Brachiodontes exustus were the main occupiers of primary space at the mid and low intertidal levels of exposed areas. The intertidal community at the protected site consisted of a mid intertidal occupied by the barnacles Balanus amphitrite and Chthamalus fragilis, and the oyster C. virginica, and a low intertidal dominated by C. virginica. The exposed area was highly variable with high colonization and mortality for all species producing large seasonal changes in structure. The protected site remained constant throughout the year; there was no evidence of further colonization of either barnacles or oysters and mortality was very low. Recolonization experiments, selective removal of species, and growth and survival data demonstrated that C. virginica does not become dominant at exposed locations because (1) the constant wave shock at the ocean site reduces growth and increases mortality of young and adult oysters and (2) oysters are outcompeted by the mussel B. exustus. The monopolization of space by C. virginica at protected sites contrasts with studies north of Cape Hatteras where the abundance of predators produces a more diverse and heterogeneous community. Predation was unimportant in Beaufort because predators were absent at the exposed areas and the oyster drill Urosalpinx cinerea was restricted to the subtidal zone at the protected site. This absence of predators indicates a higher level of environmental stress near Beaufort compared to areas farther north.     

Neocembrene A, a major component of the trail-following pheromone in the genus Prorhinotermes (Insecta, Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae)

Summary. The diterpene neocembrene A or (1E,5E,9E,12R)-1,5,9-trimethyl-12-(1-methylethenyl)-1,5,9-cyclotetradecatriene, known as the trail-following pheromone of the advanced Termitidae Nasutitermitinae Nasutitermes exitiosus and Trinervitermes bettonianus, has been identified after SPME-GC/MS as the major component of the trail-following pheromone of the Rhinotermitidae Prorhinotermitinae, Prorhinotermes canalifrons and P. simplex. In all the other Rhinotermitidae studied until now, the major component of their trail pheromones is dodecatrienol ((3Z,6Z,8E)-dodeca-3,6,8-trien-1-ol). This biochemical data further add to the anatomical and molecular characteristics that give a special status to the taxon Prorhinotermes among Rhinotermitidae. In Prorhinotermes canalifrons and P. simplex, neocembrene A was the only secretory compound specific to the sternal gland surface that could be detected after SPME. It elicited orientation as well as recruitment behavioral effects. However, the comparison of the respective biological activities triggered by neocembrene A and by sternal gland secretion suggests that minor components of the latter are acting in synergy with neocembrene A.     

Heavy metals in three commercially valuable cyprinids in the river Panjkora,district Lower Dir,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,Pakistan

This study was conducted in river Panjkora (Khall, upstream; Timergara, downstream) and its tributary (Konhaye stream, reference site) at district Lower Dir. The study was aimed to assess heavy metal load in gills, liver, kidneys, and muscles of three fish species, namely Schizothorax esocinus, Racoma labiata, and Crossocheilus diplocheilus. The heavy metals, including nickel, cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, chromium, iron, and manganese were determined using an atomic absorption spect-rophotometer. Nickel and cadmium were not detected in any of the collected specimens at all sampling sites. Concentration of the detected metals varied significantly depending upon fish species and tissue type. Crossocheilus diplocheilus showed higher accumulated concentration of heavy metals while R. labiata contained the least. Schizothorax esocinus and R. labiata displayed significant differences in their concentrations of metals. The order of accumulation of heavy metals in different tissues was liver>kidneys>muscles>gills. Data demonstrated that heavy metal levels in the studied species were within permissible limits and thus, apparently suitable for human consumption. Currently, the river contains a sewage burden, and continued heavy pollution may ultimately lead to serious problems in the future.     

水生生物水质基准研究中轮虫、水螅、涡虫类受试生物的筛选

轮虫、水螅、涡虫是水生生态系统的重要生物类群。因其对水体污染较敏感,所以对水生生物基准研究有重要意义。依据我国生物区系资料及毒性数据丰度,筛选出8种代表性本土轮虫、水螅、涡虫类生物。参照美国水生生物基准技术指南,搜集、筛选了这8种代表性生物的急性毒性数据,通过数据分析,筛选出对各物种毒性最大的污染物,主要包括重金属、农药、有机锡化物、表面活性剂、吡啶胺类杀菌剂。分析污染物的物种敏感度分布,依据累积概率对代表性生物的物种敏感性进行分类,结果为:萼花臂尾轮虫(Brachionus calyciflorus)、绿水螅(Hydra viridissima)、普通水螅(Hydra vulgaris)对重金属铜的累积概率为6.5%、8.5%和10.4%,普通水螅(Hydra vulgaris)对重金属汞的累积概率为6.3%;龟甲轮虫(Keratella cochlearis)和四齿腔轮虫(Lecane quadridentata)对五氯酚钠的累积概率为5.1%和7.6%;褐水螅(Hydra oligactis)和绿水螅(Hydra viridissima)对三丁基氧化锡的累积概率为6.9%和13.8%,萼花臂尾轮虫(Brachionus calyciflorus)对氟啶胺的累积概率为6.7%,日本三角涡虫(Dugesia japonica)对四氯化碳、十二烷基苯磺酸钠的累积概率分别为6.7%和7.1%。上述结果表明:萼花臂尾轮虫、绿水螅对重金属铜敏感;普通水螅对重金属铜和汞敏感;龟甲轮虫和四齿腔轮虫对农药敏感;褐水螅和绿水螅对有机锡化物敏感;萼花臂尾轮虫对吡啶胺类杀菌剂敏感;日本三角涡虫对四氯化碳、表面活性剂敏感。这7种代表性生物可作为相关污染物的水生生物基准受试物种。     

Effect of latex material on antioxidant enzymes,lipid peroxidation,DNA damage,and chromosomal aberration

Cell integrity is affected by oxidative stress when the production of active oxidants overwhelms antioxidant defense mechanisms. Latex, a natural polymer obtained from Hevea brasiliensis, is used in medical industry for manufacturing surgical gloves, urinary catheters, and dental dams. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of latex material on oxidative stress by in vivo and in vitro methods. In addition, the material was screened for its ability to induce any chromosomal aberrations (CAs) by in vitro method. In vivo studies were carried out with implanted latex material onto subcutaneous tissue of various batches of experimental Wistar rats. At the end of experimental period, animals were anesthetized, blood was collected for serum analysis, and sacrificed. Liver was excised for the determination of antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation (LPO). Subcutaneous tissues were obtained for the extraction of genomic DNA from implanted animals and checked for the presence of 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), considered an indicator of DNA damage. Simultaneously, in vitro studies were carried out using fresh liver and subcutaneous tissue obtained from Swiss albino mice treated with physiological saline extract of latex material. For the estimation of both in vitro and in vivo oxidative stress, 10% liver homogenate was assessed for stress indicators like reduced glutathione, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, LPO and protein content. The results of both in vivo and in vitro studies indicated that the chemical leachents from the latex material did not significantly affect LPO and the levels of antioxidant enzymes. There was also no significant increase in 8-OHdG content due to the presence of implanted latex material. Finally, the results of in vitro CA test and G banding indicated that extracts of test material did not induce any chromosomal abnormalities.     

Diet of some Antarctic nudibranchs (Gastropoda,Opisthobranchia, Nudibranchia)

Austrodoris kerguelenensis feeds on sponges of the genera Rosella and Scolymastra; Aegires albus, on Hexactinellida (Porifera); and Tritoniella belli, probably on non-determined synascidians. Bathydoris clavigera and B. hodgsoni are omnivorous.     

Genetic structure of a scleractinian coral, Mycedium elephantotus, in Taiwan

The genetic structure of Mycedium elephantotus (Pallas, 1766) populations from three regions around Taiwan was examined using allozyme electrophoresis. Eight loci were scored from seven enzyme systems. Seven loci were polymorphic under the 95% criterion. The high ratio of observed to expected genotypic diversities at the collection sites (G _O:G _E=0.8 to 1.0) indicate that M. elephantotus propagates predominantly by sexual reproduction. Allele frequencies of M. elephantotus differed significantly among regions (D=0.024 to 0.256, F _ST=0.032 to 0.218, p < 0.001), while populations among collection sites within each region were homogeneous (D=0.000 to 0.015, F _ST=0.010 to 0.022, p > 0.05). Genetic differentiation between populations from southern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands is greater than that between southern and northern Taiwan populations, although the former two regions are much closer geographically. The UPGMA dendrogram based on Nei's unbiased genetic distance showed a clear subdivision of populations into two groupings, northern Taiwan/Penghu Islands and southern Taiwan. A higher level of gene flow was found between M. elephantotus populations in northern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands (N _m=7.56) than that between populations in southern Taiwan and other regions (N _m=0.90 to 1.72). The pattern of genetic subdivision among regions is consistent with the pattern of ocean currents, indicating that genetic differentiation is likely driven by surface circulation vicariance. Received: 2 December 1997 / Accepted: 15 September 1998     

Abundances,growth rates,and production of tropical neritic copepods off Kingston,Jamaica

Weekly samples were collected near Kingston, Jamaica in 27 m vertical hauls, using 200 and 64µm mesh plankton nets, from July 1985 to January 1987. Thirtytwo copepod species were identified; nauplii and all copepodite stages were enumerated. Total copepod abundance ranged from 2.56 to 87.3 × 10⁴ m^–2. The annual abundance cycle was bimodal with peaks in October–November and May–June corresponding to the rainy seasons. Mean annual copepodite biomass was 0.15 g AFDW m^–2 ranging from 0.03 to 0.41 g AFDW m^–2. Mean generation time (from egg to adult) at 28°C was 19.5 d for the common speciesCentropages velificatus, Paracalanus aculeatus, andTemora turbinata. Isochronal development was demonstrated for copepodites ofP. aculeatus andT. turbinata, but not forC. velificatus. Mean daily specific growth rates (G) were 0.63, 0.63, and 0.48 d^–1 forC. velificatus, P. aculeatus, andT. turbinata, respectively. In general, daily specific growth rates decreased in the later copepodite stages. Thus, it is postulated that growth of later stages and egg production may be food limited. Annual copepodite production was estimated as 419 kJ m^–2 yr^–1, while annual exuvial production and naupliar production were 35 and 50 kJ m^–2 yr^–1, respectively. Egg production was estimated as 44% (184 kJ m^–2 yr^–1) of the total copepodite production. Thus, mean total annual copepod production was 688 kJ m^–2 yr^–1. This estimate is within the range of copepod production estimates in coastal temperate regions.     

Phylogeographic study of the dwarf oyster, Ostreola stentina, from Morocco, Portugal and Tunisia: evidence of a geographic disjunction with the closely related taxa, Ostrea aupouria and Ostreola equestris

Despite the economic importance of oysters due to the high aquaculture production of several species, the current knowledge of oyster phylogeny and systematics is still fragmentary. In Europe, Ostrea edulis, the European flat oyster, and Ostreola stentina, the Provence oyster or dwarf oyster, are both present along the European and African, Atlantic and Mediterranean, coasts. In order to document the relationship not only between O. stentina and O. edulis, but also with the other Ostrea and Ostreola species, we performed a sequence analysis of the 16S mitochondrial fragment (16S rDNA: the large subunit rRNA-coding gene) and the COI fragment (COI: cytochrome oxidase subunit I). Oysters were sampled from populations in Portugal (two populations), Tunisia (two populations) and Morocco (one population), identified as O. stentina on the basis of shell morphological characters. Our data supported a high degree of differentiation between O. stentina and O. edulis and a close relationship between O. stentina and both Ostrea aupouria (from New Zealand) and Ostreola equestris (from Mexico Gulf/Atlantic). The status of this geographic disjunction between these closely related species is discussed. Furthermore, although identified in a separate genus Ostreola by Harry (Veliger 28:121–158, 1985), our molecular data on O. stentina, together with those available for the other two putative congeneric species, O. equestris and Ostreola conchaphila, would favour incorporation of Ostreola in Ostrea. Finally, a PCR-RFLP approach allowed the rapid identification of O. edulis and O. stentina.     

Cardenolide content,emetic potency,and thin-layer chromatography profiles of monarch butterflies,Danaus plexippus,and their larval host-plant milkweed,Asclepias humistrata,in Florida

Summary This paper is the fourth in a series on cardenolide fingerprints of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus, Danainae) and their host-plant milkweeds (Asclepiadaceae) in the eastern United States. Cardenolide concentrations ofAsclepias humistrata plants from north central Florida ranged from 71 to 710 µg/0.1 g dry weight, with a mean of 417 µg/0.1 g. Monarchs reared individually on these plants contained cardenolide concentrations ranging from 243 to 575 µg/0.1 g dry weight, with a mean of 385 µg/0.1 g. Cardenolide uptake by butterflies was independent of plant concentration, suggesting that sequestration saturation occurs in monarchs fed cardenolide-rich host plants. Thinlayer chromatography resolved 19 cardenolides in the plants and 15 in the butterflies. In addition to humistratin,A. humistrata plants contained several relatively non-polar cardenolides of the calotropagenin series which are metabolized to more polar derivatives in the butterflies. These produced a butterfly cardenolide fingerprint clearly distinct from those previously established for monarchs reared on otherAsclepias species. In emetic assays with the blue jay,Cyanocitta cristata, the 50% emetic dose (ED₅₀) per jay was 57.1 µg, and the average number of ED₅₀ units per butterfly was 13.8, establishing that this important south eastern milkweed produces highly emetic, chemically defended monarchs. Our data provide further support for the use of cardenolide fingerprints of wild-caught monarchs to make ecological predictions concerning defence against natural enemies, seasonal movement and larval host-plant utilization by monarch butterflies during their annual cycle of migration, breeding and overwintering.     

Oviposition stimulant for the zebra swallowtail butterfly, Eurytides marcellus, from the foliage of pawpaw, Asimina triloba

Summary. We have isolated a caffeoylcyclohexane-1-carboxylic acid derivative, 3-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid (3-CmQA), as a contact oviposition stimulant for the zebra swallowtail butterfly, Eruytides marcellus (Papilionidae), from the foliage of its primary host plant, Asimina triloba (Annonaceae). This compound alone was as active in stimulating oviposition by females as were the parent ethanolic plant extract and the host plant itself. Other tested isomers of 3-CmQA, including 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA or trans-chlorogenic acid), were inactive. We found, however, that experienced female butterflies responded strongly to host volatiles, which enhanced landing rates and hence oviposition.? This is the first report of an oviposition stimulant for a swallowtail butterfly of the tribe Graphiini. We found 3-CmQA to be the major caffeoylcyclohexane-1-carboxylic acid isomer in plants of the genus Asimina. These plants lack appreciable amounts of 5-CQA, which has been shown previously to be one of the oviposition stimulants for certain Rutaceae- or Apiaceae-feeding swallowtails of the related tribe Papilionini.? Our findings, along with earlier results from the tribes Troidini and Papilionini, suggest that responses by swallowtails to hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives as oviposition cues date back at least to the ancestor of the subfamily Papilioninae. Received 24 March 1998; accepted 27 May 1998.     

Specificity of communication channels in four limacodid moths: Darna bradleyi, Darna trima, Setothosea asigna, and Setora nitens (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

Summary. Darna bradleyi Holloway, D. trima Moore, Setothosea asigna van Eecke and Setora nitens Walker are sympatric and coseasonal limacodid moths in plantations of oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Arecales: Palmae), in Borneo, southeast Asia. We tested the hypothesis that these four species maintain reproductive isolation through specificity in diel periods of communication, microlocation for communication and/or communication signal (pheromone). Studying diel periodicity of calling behavior by female moths and response by male moths to traps baited with virgin females or synthetic pheromone, we determined that sexual communication of D. bradleyi and D. trima took place from ˜17:30 to 18:45 hr and that of S. asigna and S. nitens from ˜18:45 to 20:00 hr and from ˜18:30 to 19:30 hr, respectively. Over 80% of male S. asigna and S. nitens were captured in pheromone-baited traps suspended >5 m high, whereas male D. bradleyi and D. trima were captured mostly in traps <5 m high. Synthetic pheromone baits attracted male moths in a species-specific manner. Moreover, baits containing both S. asigna and S. nitens pheromones failed to attract any male moths, indicating that female S. asigna and S. nitens, with overlapping communication periods, use bifunctional pheromone components that attract conspecific males while repelling heterospecifics. Similarly, addition of D. bradleyi pheromone to S. asigna or S. nitens pheromone reduced attraction of male S. asigna and S. nitens. The failure of D. bradleyi and D. trima, which overlap in time and microlocation for communication, to evolve bifunctional pheromones may be attributed to the recent occurrence of sympatry between D. bradleyi and D. trima in Borneo, apparently too recent for bifunctional pheromones to have evolved. We conclude that D. bradleyi, D. trima, S. asigna and S. nitens utilize any or all of diel periodicity, intra and interspecific effects of communication signal and/or microlocation for signaling, allowing these limacodids to co-inhabit the same habitat and remain reproductively isolated. Received 5 May 2000; accepted 18 August 2000     

Chemical defenses, nutritional quality, and structural components in three sponge species: Ircinia felix, I. campana, and Aplysina fulva

Allocating chemical defenses to regions or tissues most at risk for predatory attack may provide protection while simultaneously minimizing associated metabolic costs. Chemical defense allocation patterns were investigated in the aspiculate sponges Ircinia felix, I. campana, and Aplysina fulva collected between July 2005 and April 2006 from J Reef off the coast of Georgia, U.S.A. It was predicted that chemical defenses would be (1) higher in the outermost 2 mm layer of the sponge; (2) positively correlated with tissue nutritional quality; and (3) correlated with structural components such as spongin fibers. Whereas defensive chemicals were concentrated in the outer 2 mm of A. fulva, the Ircinia species had higher concentrations in deeper tissue layers. Furthermore, no significant positive or negative correlation between chemical defenses and nutritional quality or levels of structural components was observed in these sponges. Overall, these results do not support the prediction that predation pressure by fish and large mobile invertebrates significantly impacts chemical defense allocation in these sponges.