Imagined citizens and participation: Local Agenda 21 in two communities in Sweden and Austria

Local Agenda 21 (LA21), which has its roots in the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, aims at fostering processes of sustainable development on a local level. In this article, we compare the LA21 processes of two cities, Helsingborg in Sweden and Vienna in Austria, to seek insight into the varying implementation approaches of common international political commitments. Our focus of analysis is on the social organisation of the two processes, the way local residents are integrated into LA21 work, and especially the political images of citizens—which we call 'imagined citizens'—that different actor groups hold. The results of the study illustrate two almost diametrically opposed organisational forms of local sustainability governance, the Swedish process relying on a more expert-led, technocratic model of implementation and the Austrian process strongly building on deliberative forms of citizen participation.     

Governing sustainability: a dialogue between Local Agenda 21 and transition management

Since the 1990s, the local level of governance has become increasingly important in addressing the challenge of sustainable development. In this article, we compare two approaches that seek to address sustainability locally, namely Local Agenda 21 and transition management. Discussing both approaches along six dimensions (history, aim, kind of change, governance understanding, process methodologies, and actors), we formulate general insights into the governance of sustainability in cities, towns, and neighbourhoods. This dialogue illustrates two related modes of thinking about sustainability governance. We touch upon the importance of an integrated perspective on sustainability transitions through which sustainability is made meaningful locally in collaborative processes. We suggest that the explicit orientation towards radical change is a precondition for governing sustainability in a way that addresses the root causes of societal challenges. Governing sustainability should address the tensions between aiming for radical change and working with status quo-oriented actors and governing settings. We conclude that governing sustainability should be about finding creative ways for opening spaces for participation, change, and experimentation, that is, for creating alternative ideas, practices, and social relations. These spaces for innovation encourage a reflexive stance on ways of working and one's own roles and attitudes, thereby preparing a fertile terrain for actors to engage in change from different perspectives.     

The political significance of local agenda 21: The early stages of some European experience

Sustainable development, as it emerged in Agenda 21 from the Rio conference in 1992, will only be meaningful when it touches the lives of ordinary people; then it becomes a reality. Local Agenda 21 (LA21) seeks to achieve that objective. This article assesses the origins of LA21, reviews its social and political significance, and considers its prospects in the light of case study experience emerging from the UK, Germany and Norway, focusing on the role of local government as a major stakeholder in Agenda 21 (A21). The range of response to LA21 has proved to be varied. A successful transformation to a more sustainable world will require visionary political leadership, supportive administrations, networks of experience sharing, alliances with non-governmental organisations and local industry, and effective community mobilisation. All of that, in turn, requires equally supportive economic and social policy backing from national governments. This article will indicate that, not surprisingly, it is the domestic political context, nationally and locally, which in the main determines the speed and nature of response to LA21, now and in the future. By understanding and being aware of these contexts, factors impeding progress towards LA21 may be addressed, whilst at the same time retaining the diversity of response which is an essential part of local sustainability.     

Citizenship, civicness and social capital in local agenda 21

Local Agenda 21s are now being widely produced throughout Britain. Whilst there is wide variation in the nature of such exercises, many are exceeding original expectations and opening up important new opportunities for community involvement in sustainable development. This paper argues that, if LA21s unlock the energies necessary to engage widespread participation in local quality of life issues, they can become an influential and enduring part of the governance of the local state. This raises a number of theoretical and practical issues relating to types of citizenship, social capital, appropriate participatory mechanisms, and the respective contributions of lay and technical expertise. Individual people who are pivotal to the dynamics of local sustainability strategies must themselves be sustained and supported throughout the process.     

Imagined citizens and participation: Local Agenda 21 in two communities in Sweden and Austria

Abstract

Local Agenda 21 (LA21), which has its roots in the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, aims at fostering processes of sustainable development on a local level. In this article, we compare the LA21 processes of two cities, Helsingborg in Sweden and Vienna in Austria, to seek insight into the varying implementation approaches of common international political commitments. Our focus of analysis is on the social organisation of the two processes, the way local residents are integrated into LA21 work, and especially the political images of citizens—which we call ‘imagined citizens’—that different actor groups hold. The results of the study illustrate two almost diametrically opposed organisational forms of local sustainability governance, the Swedish process relying on a more expert-led, technocratic model of implementation and the Austrian process strongly building on deliberative forms of citizen participation.     

The significance and praxis of community-based sustainability projects: Community gardens in western Australia

Sustainability projects initiated by community groups can be significant in their contribution to the overall process of Local Agenda 21 planning and in their substantive contribution to sustainable communities. Community gardens differ from public gardens in that they are managed by community members rather than by local governments, although they may be located on council land. Community gardens vary in type from collections of individual plots to large-scale collaborative projects for the benefit of the wider community. Their roles include the production of fresh organic food; the creation of community places; and the use and dissemination of community science and innovative technologies. This paper reviews the types and roles of community gardens, and provides a case study of a community garden in Western Australia. It analyses the lessons learned from this particular case and the potential contribution of community gardens to Local Agenda 21 planning and to physical, ecological, sociocultural and economic sustainability.     

Partnerships for local sustainability and local governance in a Tasmanian settlement

This research is concerned with effects and actions at the local level, where it is argued that local governing processes are key to developing sustainable communities. The roles of the citizen and of formal government are changing such that the implementation of sustainability praxis at the local level requires that citizens and governments reconsider both the meaning and techniques of governance. Indeed, how we are governed, participate in governing processes and internalise and accept the need for change will affect how local communities make constant and lasting a dynamic praxis of sustainability. Actors in local governments and communities may be crucial in this task—especially as facilitators, enablers, leaders and partners. In this paper we focus on the Huon Valley Council and some members of one of its communities. We examine how they are experimenting with partnerships as a form of governance to unify, control, mobilise and regulate the conduct of various actors, and how such partnerships may foster sustainability praxis in the Valley's diverse communities of place and interest.     

Local sustainability processes worldwide: a systematic review of the literature and research agenda

This article presents a systematic literature review of 109 articles (1992–2015) dealing with Local Agenda 21 processes worldwide. It analyzes two essential elements of Local Agenda 21: (1) the holistic approach of the sustainable development concept and (2) the main driving forces behind such processes. It shows that, although at the beginning, sustainability was seen as a natural extension of environmental policy work, it has been perceived over recent years as a guiding principle applied to issues of environment, economic development, and social welfare, and Local Agenda 21 is perceived as a coherent approach to sustainability planning. In addition, Local Government Strategy is the main typology followed, although it suffers from important limitations. Future studies could focus on local sustainability process outcomes. Further quantitative studies would be welcome, given the qualitative case study dominance in the field. We conclude with a research agenda to tackle theoretical, methodological, and empirical lacunae.     

The significance and praxis of community‐based sustainability projects: Community gardens in western Australia

Abstract

Sustainability projects initiated by community groups can be significant in their contribution to the overall process of Local Agenda 21 planning and in their substantive contribution to sustainable communities. Community gardens differ from public gardens in that they are managed by community members rather than by local governments, although they may be located on council land. Community gardens vary in type from collections of individual plots to large‐scale collaborative projects for the benefit of the wider community. Their roles include the production of fresh organic food; the creation of community places; and the use and dissemination of community science and innovative technologies. This paper reviews the types and roles of community gardens, and provides a case study of a community garden in Western Australia. It analyses the lessons learned from this particular case and the potential contribution of community gardens to Local Agenda 21 planning and to physical, ecological, sociocultural and economic sustainability.     

Partnerships for local sustainability and local governance in a Tasmanian settlement

This research is concerned with effects and actions at the local level, where it is argued that local governing processes are key to developing sustainable communities. The roles of the citizen and of formal government are changing such that the implementation of sustainability praxis at the local level requires that citizens and governments reconsider both the meaning and techniques of governance. Indeed, how we are governed, participate in governing processes and internalise and accept the need for change will affect how local communities make constant and lasting a dynamic praxis of sustainability. Actors in local governments and communities may be crucial in this task—especially as facilitators, enablers, leaders and partners. In this paper we focus on the Huon Valley Council and some members of one of its communities. We examine how they are experimenting with partnerships as a form of governance to unify, control, mobilise and regulate the conduct of various actors, and how such partnerships may foster sustainability praxis in the Valley's diverse communities of place and interest.     

Indicators for change: Taking a lead

The authors argue that sustainable development is a political concept arising from interactions between socio-economic and physical systems. As such, political values are implicit in many qualitative aspects of sustainability and its communication through indicators. In Great Britain, local government has played the lead role in Local Agenda 21, involving interest groups and community organisations in varying degrees, through public participation. However, the need for local solutions to sustainability problems also exists in Northern Ireland, where governmental bodies are unwilling or unable to accept responsibility for Local Agenda 21. In the Northern Ireland context, the evolving role of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and the community sector in the indicators issue has been markedly different to that in the rest of the UK. There are potential problems concerning political values and mandates when the NGO/community sector assumes the lead in such tasks. The authors argue that, while criticisms of explicit and/or implied political values can be well grounded, addressing these must go beyond questions of objectivity in collection and presentation of indicators and projects must be understood by developing feedback and review mechanisms. The authors review the Northern Ireland sustainability indicators project and evaluate the feedback procedures in place. Lessons learnt from this exercise are explored with reference to (i) the current organisation of Local Agenda 21 within local government in Northern Ireland and (ii) national and international parallels.     

Between environmental and ecological democracy: theory and practice at the democracy-environment nexus

ABSTRACT

Concepts of ecological and environmental democracy seek to reconcile two normative ideals: ensuring environmental sustainability while safeguarding democracy. These ideals are frequently conceived as being in conflict, as democracy is perceived as too slow and cumbersome to deliver the urgent large-scale collective action needed to tackle environmental problems. Theories addressing the democracy-environment nexus can be situated on a spectrum from theories of ecological democracy that are more critical of existing liberal democratic institutions to theories of environmental democracy that call for reforming rather than radically transforming or dismantling those institutions. This article reviews theoretical and empirical scholarship on the democracy-environment nexus. We find continued theoretical and empirical diversity in the field, as well as vibrant debates on democratising global environmental politics, local material practices, and non-human representation. We argue for stronger dialogue between environmental political theory and empirical, policy-oriented research on democracy and sustainability, as well as further exploration of complementarities between ecological and environmental democracy. We identify four main areas of challenge and opportunity for theory and practice: public participation and populism; technocracy and expertise; governance across scales; and ecological rights and limits.     

Urban climate change and sustainability planning: an analysis of sustainability and climate change discourses in local government plans in Canada

This paper clarifies the competing discourses of sustainability and climate change and examines the manifestation of these discourses in local government planning. Despite the increasingly significant role of sustainability and climate change response in urban governance, it is unclear whether local governments are constructing different discourses that may result in conflicting approaches to policy-making. Using a governmentality approach, this paper dissects the contents of 15 Canadian local governments’ sustainability plans. The findings show that there are synergies and tensions between discourses of sustainability and climate change. Both share discursive space and shape local governance rationalities, though climate change response logics are not necessarily highlighted even where the action could result in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions. In some cases, existing GHG intensive practices are being rebranded as ‘sustainable’. This suggests a tension between discourses of sustainability and climate change that may complicate attempts to address climate change through local sustainability planning.     

Surrender or resistance to the implementation of Local Agenda 21 in Portugal: the challenges of local governance for sustainable development

The aim of this paper is to understand how Local Agenda 21 (LA21) is contributing to update local policy and decision making towards sustainable development in Portugal. Departing from a theoretical view of governance for sustainable development – its core values and challenges – and the role of LA21 in its endorsement, the paper presents the main results of a questionnaire survey submitted to Portuguese municipalities, with the purpose of understanding how far LA21 is being incorporated into planning and management. The paper then tries to expose some of the main potential, limitations and challenges in the local Portuguese case for the short-term sustainable future.     

Inspiring Futures for European Local Governments!

Since 1994, more than 2000 European local governments have adopted the principles of the Aalborg Charter as a basis for local sustainability action. Now, ten years later in June 2004, these local governments will gather once again in Aalborg, Denmark at the Fourth European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns in Europe, Inspiring Futures—Aalborg+10. The Aalborg+10 event will celebrate a decade of European local sustainability action, evaluate progress and stagnation, and, more importantly, will adopt new commitments to move from Agenda to Action. The conference will be crucial for accelerating local sustainability in Europe and to move towards Local Action. Here an overview is provided on the context against which this important conference is set and its expected outcomes.     

Local Agenda 21: Substance or Spin?

Local Agenda 21 has become well embedded as a mechanism for promoting sustainable development strategies at the municipal level. Quantitative studies indicate an impressive rate of progress on strategy production and adoption. This paper reports on qualitative research focused mainly on four innovative UK case studies, and explores the reality of experiences as revealed by participantsin Local Agenda 21. It considers the nature of claims made in relation to sustainability networks, the role of local government and stakeholder characteristics. The paper concludes that, whilst many of the claims about LA 21 are intractable to test, there is some evidence of genuine attainment. This relates mainly to processes of strategy production, stimulation of environmental citizenship, inclusion of various sectors, challenging traditional assumptions and actions, and assisting local democracy.     

The National Forest and Local Agenda 21: An Experiment in Integrated Landscape Planning

The post-Rio environmental accord has offered new opportunities for landscape planning linking global concerns with Local Agenda 21 through concepts of sustainable development. This paper analyses the potential for integrated landscape planning by linking the aims of global sustainability with a major initiative of the UK Government, the National Forest located in the English Midlands. A common commitment to concepts of partnership and participation facilitated by local authorities can be found in the National Forest Strategy and in the principles of Local Agenda 21. Using case studies comparing local fora created to implement parts of the National Forest Strategy with focus groups formed to prepare Local Agenda 21 Action Plans, it is argued that a common consensus between these endeavours has not so far been achieved. Problems associated with the interpretation of national government policy guidance following the Earth Summit coupled with the constitution, membership and goals of specific groups are viewed as the primary reasons for conflict. These have implications for achieving compatibility between the Forest ideals and those enshrined in Local Agenda 21, particularly in localities where mineral exploitation and landfill are contentious planning concerns.     

Beyond sustainability indicators

Abstract

Sustainability indicators are an increasingly popular tool for the identification of policies and monitoring of progress towards sustainable development. The need for indicators is clearly set out in Agenda 21 and has been taken up by the Commission for Sustainable Development. Devising alternative measures of progress to gross national product has been the subject of much research in the past few years. There are many local sustainability indicator initiatives now under way, co‐ordinated by local authorities and involving local communities. However useful these exercises have been (not least to those engaged in them) there is little evidence, so far, that sustainability indicators are leading to substantial shifts in policy at national or local level. Evidence points, in fact, to substantial barriers to progress in several key areas: for example, the necessity for the greater integration of environmental, social and economic policy, the tackling of inequality and poverty and the encouragement of greater public participation in action on sustainable development. In order for indicators to make any progress in surmounting these barriers there is a need to address issues of trust and to examine existing institutional structures and practices. In parallel with the development of indicators, national, and particularly local, government will need to experiment with new and creative techniques for community participation in decision making, engage in dialogue with new cultural networks and implement practical initiatives to improve the quality of life in particular communities.     

Inspiring Futures for European Local Governments!

Since 1994, more than 2000 European local governments have adopted the principles of the Aalborg Charter as a basis for local sustainability action. Now, ten years later in June 2004, these local governments will gather once again in Aalborg, Denmark at the Fourth European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns in Europe, Inspiring Futures—Aalborg+10. The Aalborg+10 event will celebrate a decade of European local sustainability action, evaluate progress and stagnation, and, more importantly, will adopt new commitments to move from Agenda to Action. The conference will be crucial for accelerating local sustainability in Europe and to move towards Local Action. Here an overview is provided on the context against which this important conference is set and its expected outcomes.     

Beyond sustainability indicators

Sustainability indicators are an increasingly popular tool for the identification of policies and monitoring of progress towards sustainable development. The need for indicators is clearly set out in Agenda 21 and has been taken up by the Commission for Sustainable Development. Devising alternative measures of progress to gross national product has been the subject of much research in the past few years. There are many local sustainability indicator initiatives now under way, co-ordinated by local authorities and involving local communities. However useful these exercises have been (not least to those engaged in them) there is little evidence, so far, that sustainability indicators are leading to substantial shifts in policy at national or local level. Evidence points, in fact, to substantial barriers to progress in several key areas: for example, the necessity for the greater integration of environmental, social and economic policy, the tackling of inequality and poverty and the encouragement of greater public participation in action on sustainable development. In order for indicators to make any progress in surmounting these barriers there is a need to address issues of trust and to examine existing institutional structures and practices. In parallel with the development of indicators, national, and particularly local, government will need to experiment with new and creative techniques for community participation in decision making, engage in dialogue with new cultural networks and implement practical initiatives to improve the quality of life in particular communities.