Artificial neural networks models for predicting effective drought index: Factoring effects of rainfall variability

Though most factors that trigger droughts cannot be prevented, accurate, relevant and timely forecasts can be used to mitigate their impacts. Drought forecasts must define the droughts severity, onset, cessation, duration and spatial distribution. Given the high probability of droughts occurrence in Kenya, her heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture and lack of effective drought mitigation strategies, the country is highly vulnerable to impacts of droughts. Current drought forecasting approaches used in Kenya are not able to provide short and long term forecasts and they fall short of providing the severity of the drought. In this paper, a combination of Artificial Neural Networks and Effective Drought Index is presented as a potential candidate for addressing these drawbacks. This is demonstrated using forecasting models that were built using weather data for thirty years for four weather stations (representing 3 agro-ecological zones) in Kenya. Experiments varying various input/output combinations were carried out and drought forecasting network models were implemented in Matrix Laboratory’s (MATLAB) Neural Network Toolbox. The models incorporate forecasted rainfall values in order to mitigate for unexpected extreme climate variations. With accuracies as high as 98 %, the solution is a great enhancement to the solutions currently in use in Kenya.     

Canadian prairie rural communities: their vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities to drought

Droughts can have severe negative effects on the environment, society and economy. The drought of 2001–2002 caused severe strain on economic and social activities in western Canada, particularly on rural communities through changes in water resources. This paper examines physical and social vulnerabilities and associated adaptation measures undertaken and the adaptive capacity in communities in the South Saskatchewan River Basin, Canada. Although all of these communities were exposed to the 2001–2002 drought, they had different levels of impacts, resulting in different types of drought adaptation measures, some due to experience with previous droughts and some in response to the 2001–2002 drought. Communities with unreliable water supply were the most vulnerable to these droughts. This vulnerability resulted in historic adaptations being implemented (e.g., Hanna, Alberta) and re-active adaptations (e.g., Cabri, Saskatchewan). It is important to examine the effectiveness of the current adaptive strategies to cope with more extensive and extended drought situations. First Nation communities, such as the Kainai Blood Indian Reserve, have many social and environmental issues but the impacts from the drought were minor. The Reserve had implemented economic changes in the late 1980s to make it less vulnerable to drought but resulted in negative impacts to the Reserve’s social health. It is imperative to determine how vulnerable First Nation communities are and will to improve future adaptive capacity. This paper provides a snap shot view of how Canadian Prairie Communities have adapted to drought and how vulnerable they are to future drought situations.     

基于多源数据的干旱监测指数对比研究——以西南地区为例

干旱作为一种时常发生的自然灾害,影响范围广,对农业和粮食安全、人类生活等有深远影响。目前常用的干旱监测指数,都有各自的优缺点,无法适用于所有类型的干旱。论文利用基于气象要素驱动数据集的SPI（Standardized Precipitation Index）、基于MODIS（Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer）的ESI（Evaporative Stress Index）、ETI（Evapotranspiration Index）和基于GRACE（Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment）观测数据的水储量变化TWSC（Terrestrial Water Storage Changes）,对西南地区2005—2014年间的干旱情况进行分析,对比了几种不同数据源下的干旱监测指标的监测效果。结果表明：1）4种干旱监测指标对西南地区的干旱都较为敏感,其中6个月尺度的SPI（即SPI-6）与3个月尺度的ESI（即ESI-3）相关性相对最强（R²=0.431, P<0.01）;2）基于GRACE的水储量变化受全局性大干旱的影响较大,且秋冬比夏天的影响大;3）SPI-6、ESI-3、ETI-3能够较为准确地监测出干旱的空间分布及干旱过程中重心的移动,ETI-3在2009—2010年的干旱中有明显滞后,SPI-6则在干旱末期夸大干旱严重程度。     

长江中下游地区气象干旱特征

长江中下游地区是中国重要的粮食生产基地,在当前全球气候变化的背景下,旱灾将直接影响该区域人民的生产生活和国家粮食安全。基于标准化降水指数（SPI）,采用1961-2015年的中国地面降水月值0.5°×0.5°格点数据集,通过游程理论定义气象干旱事件,并获取了描述干旱事件特征的三个变量：干旱历时、干旱烈度和烈度峰值。指数函数和伽马函数分别用来拟合干旱历时和干旱烈度的边缘分布,Clayton Copula函数用来构建干旱历时和干旱烈度的联合分布。在此基础上,分别用常规单变量和基于Copula双变量的频率分析方法探讨55年来长江中下游地区干旱事件在不同时间尺度下的空间特征。结果表明：（1）不同时间尺度下,长江中下游地区的干旱特征空间格局存在一定的差异,最严重的干旱主要发生在长江下游地区; （2）不同时间尺度的干旱历时和干旱烈度均呈正相关,即较严重的干旱事件通常持续更长的时间;（3）鄱阳湖流域和长江干流下游的北部干旱风险较高,而陕西南部、河南南部、湖北大部和湖南的中北部干旱风险较低。研究结果可为长江中下游地区水资源的科学管理和干旱灾害的风险评估提供理论依据。     

基于SPEI和SPI指数的青海省东部农业区春夏气象干旱特征的评估

青海省东部农业区是青海省重要的粮食生产基地,春夏干旱直接影响着该区农业的有序发展。论文选取青海省东部农业区13个气象站点1961-2014年平均月降水和气温数据,采用泰森多边形法、SPEI和SPI指数、R/S分析等方法对比评估了该区的春夏气象干旱演变特征。研究表明：1）近54 a SPEI和SPI指数显示青海省东部农业区干旱年际变化在2000年代前基本一致,2000年代后变化趋势发生变化;SPEI指数显示2000年代后春夏旱逐渐加重,SPI指数显示2000年代后春旱逐渐缓解该区干旱,气温是导致两者产生差异的主要原因。2）该区干旱面积覆盖率与干旱年际变化规律保持一致,两种指数主要在1990年代中期前后有所不同,1990年代中期后SPEI指数显示的春夏干旱覆盖面积要比SPI指数显示的广。3）SPEI和SPI指数在2000年代后春夏干旱频率呈相反趋势,SPEI指数显示的2000年代为干旱高频期,SPI指数为干旱低频期;两种指数均显示春旱高频区由西部转向东部地区,夏旱高频区由西北转向东南地区。4）根据干旱周期及R/S分析法,未来4~6 a该区春旱加重,北部地区为春旱高发区;未来18~22 a夏旱也有所加重,西部和东部地区为夏旱高发区。5）通过对比分析发现,SPEI指数在该区的适用性较好,能为该区干旱监测提供较为科学的理论依据。     

基于水资源供需平衡机制的安徽省干旱时空分布

基于目前大多数干旱研究偏于气象、水文和农业干旱,不能较好地反映供求矛盾,论文根据水资源供需成因的旱情评价方法,对安徽省2001-2005年的旱情时空分布进行了综合分析。研究发现,在时间上,安徽省2001和2005两年同为中度干旱,但差别甚大,平水年份的2005年的旱情等级数(Drought Index,DI)(1.485 9)却远高于偏枯的2001年(DI 0.890 9);在空间上,平水年份的2005年总体为中度干旱,但各地市区域差异明显,经济发展水平较高、用水量大的城市干旱严重(如合肥、淮南、马鞍山、芜湖市等)。淮北(DI -0.146 1,无旱)与芜湖(DI 2.466 2,严重干旱)两市水资源自然量和人口数量都相当,但旱情迥异。研究发现,造成上述旱情差异的根本原因是由于社会经济发展水平的差异而引起的水资源供需量的巨大差别。研究认为,在现代的社会背景下,单独的气象干旱、农业干旱和水文干旱已不能全面反映旱情状况,而社会经济干旱对旱情的描述更为直观,采用水资源供需平衡机制对旱情的评价也更符合实际。     

基于标准化降水蒸散指数的中国东部季风区干旱特征分析

研究基于标准化降水蒸散指数,采用0.5°×0.5°中国地面气温和降水数据集,通过分析东部季风区季节和年尺度干旱覆盖率、频率以及单位面积干旱强度,揭示了中国东部季风区1961—2013年干旱特征时空分布变化。研究结果表明：近20 a东部季风区干旱特征变化明显,特别是1997年之后东部季风区干旱覆盖率和单位面积干旱强度显著增加;东北地区、华北平原、黄土高原和西南地区干旱频率增加,高频率覆盖范围扩大明显;气象干旱极端危险区扩大。全球变暖背景下东部季风区干旱呈现出极端化趋势。     

长江流域干旱时空变化特征及演变趋势

干旱通常被认为是我国最严重的自然灾害之一,其造成的经济损失十分巨大.长江流域作为典型的湿润-半湿润区,干湿交替明显,干旱事件时空分布特征较为复杂.为了深入认识和理解长江流域气象干旱现状及其特征,探究干旱事件发生规律,采用长江流域1951-2015年PDSI（Palmer drought severity index,帕尔默干旱指数,运用Mann-Kendall检验、EEMD（ensemble empirical mode decomposition,集合经验模分解）、REOF（rotation empirical orthogonal function,旋转经验正交函数分解）、森斜率估算等分析方法,探讨长江流域干旱面积时间变化特征、干湿情景时空分布特征以及变化趋势.结果表明:1951-2015年,长江流域发生季节性干旱的面积整体呈扩大趋势,2000年后该趋势有所减缓.流域内呈现6个明显的干湿空间分布型,2000年后流域的东南部呈变旱态势,整体而言,流域内"南涝北旱"特征十分明显.未来,长江流域整体有变湿的趋势,西北部更旱,东北部变湿,南部以及东南部PDSI上升趋势明显,有发生旱涝急转的可能.      

Adapting to droughts in Yuanyang Terrace of SW China: insight from disaster risk reduction

Despite international focus on how to facilitate adaptation to droughts in a changing climate, a good deal of adaptation will be enacted at the local level. Focusing on the Yuanyang Terrace of SW China (a very famous agricultural heritage site), this study illustrates that land use change, dynamic adaptation and Public-Private Partnership (PPP) are the main measures to reduce the drought disaster risk and have the important role in adapting to droughts based on methodology of the land use survey, household questionnaire, local government and companies’ interview. And a new conceptual model of adaptation from the insight of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) was proposed in spatial, temporal and social dimensions. It is a good practice to adapt to disaster risk and agricultural heritage conservation by tourism development. Adaptive risk management is more important in adapting to disaster risk in order to maintain heritages conservation and local livelihood improvement.     

The role of fish and fisheries in recovering from natural hazards: Lessons learned from Vanuatu

Coastal fisheries provide staple food and sources of livelihood in Pacific Island countries, and securing a sustainable supply is recognised as a critical priority for nutrition security. This study sought to better understand the role of fish for Pacific Island communities during disasters and in disaster recovery. To evaluate community impacts and responses after natural disasters, focus group discussions were held with men and women groups at ten sites across Shefa, Tafea, Malampa and Sanma provinces in Vanuatu. The combined impacts of category 5 Tropical Cyclone Pam (TC-Pam) in March 2015 and prolonged El-Niño induced drought have had a profound impact across much of Vanuatu. Terrestrial systems had been disproportionately impacted with substantial shortages in drinking water, garden crops, cash crops and damage to infrastructure. Localized impacts were noted on marine environments from TC-Pam and the drought, along with an earthquake that uplifted reef and destroyed fishing grounds in Malampa province. Communities in Malampa and Shefa provinces also noted a crown-of-thorns outbreak that caused coral mortality. The significant reduction in terrestrial-based food and income generation capacity generally led to increased reliance on marine resources to cope and a shift in diets from local garden food to rice. However, limited market access, lack of fishing skills and technology in many sectors of the community reduced the capacity for marine resources to support recovery. A flexible management approach allowed protected areas and species to be utilized as reservoirs of food and income when temporarily opened to assist recovery. These findings illustrate that fish and fisheries management is at the center of disaster preparedness and relief strategies in remote Pacific Island communities. High physical capital (e.g. infrastructure, water tanks and strong dwellings) is key for disaster preparedness, but supporting community social capital for the purpose of natural resource management and human capital for diverse adaptation skills can also improve community resilience. Recognizing the humanitarian value that well managed fisheries resources and skilled fishers can play to disaster relief adds another dimension to the imperative of improving management of coastal fisheries and aligning policies across sectors.     

气候变化下西北地区农田水分平衡的模拟与分析

在全球变暖的背景下,系统分析气候变化及其对农田水分平衡的影响,对西北地区,乃至全国的生态环境和社会经济可持续发展具有重要的现实意义。论文从水分平衡的角度出发,以县域为基本单元,在10a尺度下,通过构建农田水分平衡模型,全面刻画了气候变化下近40年来西北地区天然状态下农田水分平衡的基本特征及演变态势。结果表明:水分亏缺是西北地区天然状态下农田水分平衡的主要特征,全区亏水量呈现由东南向西北、由高山向盆地递增的空间分布格局;40年来,西北地区农田水分平衡呈现西降东升的态势,新疆大部及河西走廊西部的部分县市,农田亏水量显著降低;西北中部及东部地区大部分县市,40年间农田亏水量呈"W"状波动,近10年亏水最为严重;河西走廊以及新疆大部分县域农田水分平衡年际间变幅较小,中东部地区变幅较大;西北地区降水与农田水分平衡呈显著的正相关,最高温度、最低温度与农田水分平衡的相关性不明显,蒸散量与农田水分平衡呈显著的负相关。     

基于土壤系统结构的喀斯特流域水文干旱分析——以贵州省为例

干旱是全球性普遍发生的一种自然现象,而喀斯特流域水文干旱不能简单归因于“气候异常、降水量减少”。论文将利用面向对象分类技术,提取土壤类型、土壤相对覆盖度、土壤相对粗糙度、土壤相对湿度的遥感信息;从土壤系统结构与土壤系统功能的关系角度,分析土壤单因素单因子、单因素双因子耦合以及多因素耦合对流域水文干旱影响。研究表明:①土壤单因素单因子对流域水文干旱影响,即是土壤通道对降雨的土壤径流影响的体现;②土壤单因素双因子耦合对流域水文干旱影响,取决于其单因子对流域水文干旱影响的程度;③土壤多因素耦合对流域水文干旱影响,即是土壤通道耦合对降雨的土壤径流影响的综合体现。因此,通过论文的研究,从土壤系统结构的角度,揭示了流域水文干旱的驱动机制,为喀斯特地区水资源的利用提供了理论基础。     

最近15年来中国气候变化、农业自然灾害与粮食生产的初步研究

本文分析了最近１５ａ来中国气候变化在最近５０ａ来的比较特征,并着重分析与讨论了这一期间气候变化、农业自然灾害与粮食生产的关系。结果表明：降水变化是影响中国粮食生产变化的主要原因,温度变化对粮食生产的影响主要表现在高纬度地区和高海拔地区；因气候变化影响粮食产量的变化幅度一般为３％～５％,个别年份可达１０％左右；因农业自然灾害造成的粮食减产幅度一般在５％～１０％,个别可达１０％左右。     

气候变化背景下贵州省农作物生长期干旱时空变化规律

以干旱高发区贵州省为研究对象,利用贵州省19个站点1960—2013年气象日值资料,考虑气象干旱累积效应及当地秋收农作物生长时期需水要求,验证了秋收作物生育期内标准降水蒸散指数（Sep-SPEI-6）与粮食减产量之间的相关性。基于Sep-SPEI-6指数采用Mann-Kendall法、滑动t检验、Morlet小波周期分析以及Hurst指数等方法分析了贵州省干旱时空变化特征。结果表明：① Sep-SPEI-6与贵州省及各州、市粮食减产量呈极显著负相关性。② 在1991、2001年前后贵州省气候发生了突变。③ 与第一阶段（1960—1991年）相比,第二阶段（1992—2001年）干旱发生频率和影响范围均减少了10.59%;较第二阶段,第三阶段（2002—2013年）分别增加了23.67%和24.74%;与前两阶段相比,第三阶段的干旱历时与强度增加显著。④ Sep-SPEI-6时间序列存在明显的周期性振荡特征,以22 a为第1主周期。⑤ 各站点Sep-SPEI-6的Hurst数值均大于0.5,说明其变化具有较好的持续性。⑥ 干旱易发区呈现由东向西的转移趋势。⑦ 农作物生长期内日降水>1 mm天数和日照总时数是影响农作物生长期干旱的主要气象因素。研究成果为贵州省抗旱减灾措施的制定提供了理论依据。     

海河70年治理历程梳理分析

海河是中国华北地区最大的水系,承载着京津冀城市群经济社会的发展.为总结海河水生态环境的变化趋势,梳理海河水污染防治与保护的经验,采用文献调研等方法系统整理分析了新中国成立以来海河流域旱涝灾害、水污染事件以及治理和管理措施,将海河治理分为4个阶段:第一阶段（1949—1971年）旱涝灾害频繁发生,遵循“上蓄、中疏、下排、适当滞”思路,进行抗旱防洪等水利工程建设;第二阶段（1972—1995年）流域经济快速发展,水质急剧恶化,以提升防洪标准和强力治理污染源为思路,进行旱涝灾害和水体污染的共同治理;第三阶段（1996—2005年）水体污染趋势得到遏制,以“关、停、并、转”为主要手段进行污染物的源头削减;第四阶段（2006年至今）海河被列入水体污染控制与治理科技重大专项（简称“水专项”）重点示范流域,在“控源减排、减负修复、综合调控”思路指导下,以水专项科技成果为支持,推动流域水体污染的系统治理.与20世纪90年代相比,2019年海河水质明显改善,GB 3838—2002《地表水环境质量标准》Ⅰ~Ⅲ类水质断面比例从1998年的25.3%升至2019年的51.9%,劣Ⅴ类水质断面比例从59.6%降至7.5%.但是海河水污染形势仍然严峻,依然存在水资源短缺、水污染压力大、水生态受损等问题,海河治理应遵循流域水质目标管理的思路,统筹好水资源、水环境、水生态,保障海河生态基流,改善水环境质量,恢复和维护健康河流生态系统功能.      

基于标准化降水蒸散指数的陕西省近50 a干旱特征分析

基于陕西省18 个气象站点1961-2010 年实测气象资料,利用标准化降水蒸散指数(SPEI),通过计算各站历年逐月的SPEI 指数值,统计近50 a 各站点出现的干旱过程,分析了陕西省历年、历年各季及月尺度上的干旱发生频率、覆盖面积和干旱发生强度,揭示了陕西省干旱发生的时空和强度演变特征。研究结果表明,近50 a 来陕西省干旱发生频率呈明显的增长趋势,尤其是1990 年以来的近20 a;陕西省在年、春、夏、秋、冬及月尺度上均有干旱发生。其中,秋季干旱最为严重,春季次之。在年代际变化方面,全省以20 世纪90 年代干旱最为严重,2000 年以来的干旱次之;干旱出现既有全省性的大范围干旱,也有区域性的局部干旱,分布极不均匀,总体分布特征是北多南少;干旱发生强度分布呈现出关中最强、陕南次之、陕北最弱的特点。     

Re-thinking water policy priorities in the Mediterranean region in view of climate change

Water is scarce in Mediterranean countries: cities are crowded with increasing demand; food is produced with large amounts of water; ecosystems demand more water that is often available; drought affects all. As climate change impacts become more noticeable and costlier, some current water management strategies will not be useful. According to the findings of CIRCE, the areas with limited water resources will increase in the coming decades with major consequences for the way we produce food and we protect ecosystems. Based on these projections this paper discusses water policy priorities for climate change adaptation in the Mediterranean. We first summarise the main challenges to water resources in Mediterranean countries and outline the risks and opportunities for water under climate change based on previous studies. Recognising the difficulty to go from precipitation to water policy, we then present a framework to evaluate water availability in response to natural and management conditions, with an example of application in the Ebro basin that exemplifies other Mediterranean areas. Then we evaluate adaptive capacity to understand the ability of Mediterranean countries to face, respond and recover from climate change impacts on water resources. Social and economic factors are key drivers of inequality in the adaptive capacity across the region. Based on the assessment of impacts and adaptive capacity we suggest thresholds for water policy to respond to climate change and link water scarcity indicators to relevant potential adaptation strategies. Our results suggest the need to further prioritise socially and economically sensitive policies.     

Typologies of crop-drought vulnerability: an empirical analysis of the socio-economic factors that influence the sensitivity and resilience to drought of three major food crops in China (1961–2001)

Why is it that sometimes small droughts trigger serious crop losses while in other cases even large droughts do not have such a major effect? In this paper, we identify socio-economic indicators associated with sensitivity and resilience to drought for each of China's main grain crops (rice, wheat and corn). Provincial harvest and rainfall data (1961–2001) are used to calculate an annual “crop-drought vulnerability index”. We separate “sensitive cases” (where significant harvest losses occurred in years with only minor droughts) and “resilient cases” (where harvest losses were minimal despite there being a major drought) and explore the socio-economic characteristics of these different situations. Results show that sensitive cases were particularly common in economically poor landlocked provinces and in wealthy coastal areas that have a limited land base. In such “sensitive cases”, the size of the rural population and the quantity of agricultural inputs were negatively correlated with drought vulnerability, while for resilient cases, vulnerability was negatively correlated with the abundance of land. This leads us to propose a series of drought-vulnerability typologies based on the extent to which land, labour, capital, agricultural technology, and infrastructure buffer or exacerbate the effect of a drought event.     

Climate change, water availability and future cereal production in China

Climate scenarios from a regional climate model are used to drive crop and water simulation models underpinned by the IPCC A2 and B2 socio-economic development pathways to explore water availability for agriculture in China in the 2020s and 2040s. Various measures of water availability are examined at river basin and provincial scale in relation to agricultural and non-agricultural water demand and current and planned expansions to the area under irrigation. The objectives are to understand the influences of different drivers on future water availability to support China's food production. Hydrological simulations produce moderate to large increases in total water availability in response to increases in future precipitation. Total water demand increases nationally and in most basins, but with a decreasing share for agriculture due primarily to competition from industrial, domestic and municipal sectors. Crop simulations exhibit moderate to large increases in irrigation water demand which is found to be highly sensitive to the characteristics of daily precipitation in the climate scenarios. The impacts of climate change on water availability for agriculture are small compared to the role of socio-economic development.The study identifies significant spatial differences in impacts at the river basin and provincial level. In broad terms water availability for agriculture declines in southern China and remains stable in northern China. The combined impacts of climate change and socio-economic development produce decreases in future irrigation areas, especially the area of irrigated paddy rice. Overall, the results suggest that there will be insufficient water for agriculture in China in the coming decades, due primarily to increases in water demand for non-agricultural uses, which will have significant implications for adaptation strategies and policies for agricultural production and water management.     

Catastrophe theory to assess water security and adaptation strategy in the context of environmental change

Economic development, population growth, urbanization and climate change have led to an increasing water shortage across the globe. Ensuring water security under changing environment will be the greatest challenge for water resources managers in near future. In this paper, catastrophe theory based multi-criteria evaluation model has been proposed to assess water security under different management strategies to recommend the best water management strategy to achieve water security in the context of global environmental change. The assessment model involves future scenarios of climate change, population growth and economic development. Total 16 indicators related to climate, socio-economy and water availability and consumption have been proposed to measure water security under three management strategies viz. business-as-usual, water demand management and water supply management. The model has been applied to Yulin city of North West China to assess water security as well as to identify the water management strategy under changing environment. The results show that under business-as-usual situation the water shortage rate will reach up to 44 % by the year 2020 and up to 70 % by the year 2030 in Yulin. Water supply is required to increase by 41 % to meet the water demand under supply management strategy which is beyond the safe baseline rate. The study reveals that water demand management can reduce the gap between water supply and demand to a reasonable amount and therefore, can be considered as the most effective approach for adapting with environment change.