The Spitak (Armenia, USSR) Earthquake: Residential Building Typology and Seismic Behaviour

The 1988 earthquake in Armenia was the most serious seismic disaster since the 1976 earthquake in Tangshan, China. At least 25,000 people lost their lives in a tremor of moderate magnitude and the USSR suffered a loss of more than 2.5 per cent of 1988's GDP. Research at the Martin Centre on the effects of earthquakes on human lives has shown an increase in global earthquake mortality rate, despite the well known improvements in some countries. The Armenian disaster was a warning to all of us concerned with natural or man-made disasters. Areas of potential high hazard are pointed out for the sub-Caucasian region. Construction practices similar to those in Armenia are certainly found in many other parts of the world, with some regional variations, and the fast assimilation of the lessons is an important target. The structural characteristics of all the residential building types existing in the affected area are presented in terms of their seismic vulnerability. Vulnerable points are discussed with a view to low cost interventions that will drastically improve the seismic safety of new buildings.     

Flood insurance and floodplain management: the US experience

Abstract

With over six million buildings located within the boundaries of the 100-yr floodplain, flood losses across the United States are widespread (88% of US counties experienced at least one flood disaster during the second half of the twentieth century). To deal with this problem, the federal government provides flood insurance through the National Flood Insurance Program, which was initiated by Congress in 1968 and amended significantly in 1969, 1973, and 1994. This article describes the US approach to flood insurance and notes a number of problems that have limited its effectiveness. Flood hazard identification is incomplete, and methods used are flawed. Mitigation has failed to contain increasing exposure to property damage in floods and coastal storms, and it has failed to markedly reduce exposure to loss of older buildings located in flood hazard areas. Market penetration of flood insurance is low, in spite of mandatory purchase requirements for new construction and the availability of subsidized insurance rates for older buildings located in flood-hazard areas. These problems, although serious, can be remedied through a variety of actions taken by governments at the federal, state, and local level.     

日本新潟县中越大地震震害调查及分析

2004年10月23日，日本新潟县中越地区发生里氏6．8级强烈地震，死亡40人，受伤4500余人，10万余人无家可归；房屋损坏近14万栋，财产损失约3万亿日元。作者随日本建筑学会地震考察队到该次地震现场进行了考察，报告主要内容包括：地震概况，地震活动性、地震烈度分布及地震波的特征，震害及分析，经济损失，最后给出了这次地震的震害经验和教训。内容可供建筑抗震设计和今后有关规范的修订参考。     

岩石场地重力式挡土墙地震土压力振动台实验研究

结合汶川震区调查资料,利用大型振动台模型试验,分析了碎石土填料的岩石场地重力式挡土墙的地震土压力及其分布规律,并以此对我国现行铁路、公路抗震规范做合理性讨论和细化.研究发现,地震作用下,挡土墙的动土压力沿墙高呈单峰曲线状分布,且60%～80%集中作用于挡墙中部;随着地震峰值加速度的增加,地震土压力分布逐渐偏离现行振震设...     

In the aftermath of the Qa'yamat:1 the Kashmir earthquake disaster in northern Pakistan

This article explores the local impact of the catastrophic earthquake in northern Pakistan on 8 October 2005. Drawing on field research, including interviews with 40 earthquake survivors, the post-disaster analysis presented here focuses upon risk awareness and the reactions of respondents to the 7.6 magnitude earthquake that devastated areas of Azad Jammu and Kashmir State, and North-West Frontier Province. The analysis provides insights into local perceptions of seismic hazard and exposure as well as survivors' priorities with regard to rebuilding and reconstruction. The article suggests that the tragedy of the devastating earthquake is entangled in a deeper knot of causal factors that are social, economic and political in nature. Rapid population growth, urbanisation, changing building styles, environmental degradation and lack of preparedness and mitigation are associated with the circumstances that place the population at risk. Remarks concerning present and future risk reduction efforts are included.     

埋设管网系统地震危险性分析方法

埋设管网系统有如下三个特点,即:埋于地基中、在平面内延伸分布范围广、具有生命线工程的重要性,故其抗震设计与地震危险性分析方法也与一般房屋建筑不同。为此,本文提出了一种同时考虑给定地震下地震动场的空间相关性、局部场地条件及地震发生非确定性影响的地震危险性分析方法。本文建议的方法中给定地震下地震动场的确定包括四方面的工作:①确定地震动场的参数,用场内各点之间的相对运动(如相对变形)而不是单点的运动(如加速度);②在频域内确定场内单个点的地震动,以幅值谱与相位谱表示;③用若干个离散点的地震动来描述地震动场;④考虑局部场地的影响。地震动空间相关性与地震发生非确定性同时考虑之间的矛盾问题在本文方法中也得到了处理,采用这一方法的优点是在地震动场中同时考虑了震级、距离及场地的影响,本文提出的方法也可以用于在平面上分布范围较广的其它生命线网络工程。     

地震环境下不同重要性建筑的抗震设防水准

针对我国进行建筑物重要性分类时没有考虑地震环境影响的现实,采用地震危险性分析的方法将我国划分为地震危险性不同的3个区.同时,在采用调整设计基准期来标定建筑的重要性类别的基础上,利用地震动参数的危险性曲线,分析了不同重要性建筑在不同危险性特征分区内、不同设防概率水准(常遇、偶遇、罕遇地震)下的地震动参数(设防烈度、地震影响系数和地震地面运动加速度)的取值,最终证实调整结构的设计基准期并考虑地震环境的影响是标定结构的重要性从而调整设防等级的一种好方法.     

民乐盆地地震危险区震害预测

本文对当前我国主要地震危险区—民乐盆地未来震级与烈度分布作出判定,对可能发震范围造成的建筑破坏、人员伤亡等地震灾害作出初步预测。     

Fire risk reduction through a community‐based risk assessment: reflections from Makola Market,Accra, Ghana

This paper explores the level of vulnerability to the hazard of fire that exists in Makola Market in Accra, Ghana, and assesses how this threat can be reduced through a community‐based risk assessment. It examines the perceptions of both market‐stall occupants and primary stakeholders regarding the hazard of fire, and analyses the availability of local assets (coping strategies) with which to address the challenge. Through an evaluation of past instances of fire, as well as in‐depth key stakeholder interviews, field visits, and observations, the study produces a detailed hazard map of the market. It goes on to recommend that policymakers consider short‐to‐long‐term interventions to reduce the degree of risk. By foregrounding the essence of holistic and integrated planning, the paper calls for the incorporation of disaster mitigation measures in the overall urban planning process and for the strict enforcement of relevant building and fire safety codes by responsible public agencies.     

电力工程建设场地设计地震动参数的研究

以江苏某电厂为例,采用概率法对其工程场地进行地震危险性分析,确定基岩水平向地震加速度时程,并根据场地土的静、动力性能参数的测试结果,采用等效线性化考虑土的非线性特性的影响,利用一维波动模型进行场地土层地震反应分析和地震动效应分析。文中得到了50年超越概率63%、10%和3%的地表水平向地震动峰值加速度和反应谱,将所得结果与电力工程相关规范作了一些比较,指出了相关规范中的一些不足,提出应对大型电力工程场地的设计地震动参数做专门的研究。     

推进地震保险 增强震灾经济补偿能力

摘要地震是一种对人类生存威胁极大的自然灾害,长期以来人类一直在探寻抗御地震灾害的有效途径。无疑,对地震造成的损失予以及时、充分的经济补偿,不失为一项重要的对策,其中,推进地震保险,通过社会经济杠杆原理,可以实现这种经济补偿。本文就推进地震保险的必要性、可行性及其实施方法和步骤,论述了作者的认识。作者认为,推进并普及地震保险,是目前增强社会防震减灾和实现自救、互救能力的最有效方法。但实现地震保险,需要政府的支持、社会的广泛参与和地震部门的密切配合。     

城市避震疏散场所公园绿地面积指标的研究

前人研究城市绿化和避震疏散场所的都很多,但都是把两者分开来研究。本文把两者结合起来,在研究避震疏散场所的基础上,以尹之潜、李荷提出的震害预测方法和谢礼立归纳的房屋遭遇地震时的破坏情况为基础,以人的需求为本,结合定性和定量2种方法,分别对城市建成区、发展建设区和规划新城区避震疏散公园绿地指标进行研究。按本文提出的避震疏散公园绿地指标规划城市避震疏散场所,既能满足城市避震疏散的目的,又能提高城市绿化率。     

Earthquake-strengthening policy for commercial buildings in small-town New Zealand

New Zealand introduced a seismic retrofitting policy in the wake of the catastrophic Canterbury earthquakes of 2010–11. The aim was to enforce seismic strengthening of earthquake-prone commercial buildings throughout the country. This study focuses on regional urban centres and the economic obstacles to strengthening their aging building stock. In investigating one town, Whanganui, we describe conditions, analyse cases, and identify incentives that apply equally to many other towns in New Zealand. We argue that incentives that suit high-growth, high-value major urban centres are a poor fit for the periphery. Around the world, many places need to upgrade their privately-owned building stock to protect it from disasters, while governments face similar challenges as they struggle to initiate the strengthening of commercial buildings. We analyse the current incentive schemes that aim to support the achievement of policy goals and suggest alternative incentive schemes that can be implemented to improve strengthening outcomes.     

Compliance with the building byelaws and earthquake safety in urban areas of Bihar: progress,constraints and challenges

The adoption and enforcement of building codes is considered the most effective tool in safeguarding lives and property against earthquakes. There would appear to be a vital regulatory role for government in the enforcement of building codes, but this is somewhat at odds with the neoliberal agenda of ‘rolling back the state’. This paper explores constraints to the implementation of building codes in the context of changing roles and responsibilities of local authorities in Bihar in India. In-depth interviews were conducted with key stakeholders across major urban centres in north Bihar. Some factors, such as: code complexity; competition between the public and private sectors for qualified personnel; and low public risk perception were found to be less significant in Bihar than has been noted elsewhere, while other factors such as: the cost of earthquake-resistant measures; political interests; corrupt practices; and lack of government capacity were important. Additional factors were also revealed by the research, some of which are exacerbated by the neoliberal climate of urban governance. While the recent 2014 byelaws represent an improvement in the system and a degree of re-regulation, ambiguities create opportunities for failures arising from ‘normalised irresponsibility’.     

Profile of Mortality from the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake using Coroner and Medical Examiner Reports

Mortality patterns from earthquakes in the United States may differ from those observed in other parts of the world. We reviewed coroner and medical examiner records for all investigated deaths from seven California counties for 15 days following the Loma Prieta earthquake of October 17, 1989 (N = 327). Data on the circumstances surrounding death were used to classify each case as directly earthquakerelated, indirectly earthquake-related, or not earthquake-related. Fifty-seven deaths were judged as directly earthquake-related. Six other deaths were indirectly related. Ten circumstances accounted for all directly earthquake-related deaths, with the collapse of an elevated freeway accounting for 40 of these deaths. Forty-six (80.8 per cent) of the 57 directly earthquake-related deaths occurred in motor vehicles on public roadways. Fifty-three (93.0 per cent) of the directly earthquake-related deaths occurred within seconds or minutes of injury. Future earthquake deaths in the United States may best be prevented by identifying and modifying seismic hazards in earthquake-prone regions, particularly transportation structures.     

GIS技术在浙江地震速报中的应用

介绍了浙江省数字地震台网建设中GIS辅助地震速报的实现技术思路和实现方法。主要描述GIS技术的特点以及如何利用GIS实现地震速报,给出了详细的技术方案和主要的程序实现代码。对地震速报的精度和效率作了分析,并在实践工作中得以检验。最后对已开发程序的不足做了总结。     

场地液化危害的概率分析

为使场地液化危害程度的估计建立在以概率论为基础的可靠性分析之上,本文提出二种估计场地液化危害程度的概率方法,二种方法分别采用不同的途径处理地震和岩土的不确定性,不仅分析了一点液化的概率,而且提供了估计整个土层住状液化概率的方法,文中最后通过算例简要讨论了液化概率分析结果的工程应用。     

由洪水泛滥的教训谈国家统一灾害管理

本文系统分析和总结了美国在洪泛平原管理中的经验教训，研究了减灾措施、行为反应及国家长期减灾目标等方面的内容，从综合的角度提出了统一的国家减灾计划。     

一种估计重大工程场地地震危险性的新方法

在简要回顾了地震危险性评定方法的要点之后,提出了一种评定工程场地地震危险性的新方法。这一方法的要点是：（１）用现在流行的方法对地震活动性进行统计分析和潜在震源划分,并将潜在震源简化为矩形断层模型;（２）在某一潜在震源上,一旦发生某一震级的地震,则采用强震地震学的研究结果从物理上模拟这次地震在重要工程场地引起的强地面运动;（３）在这一潜在震源上,可以构造出在预测的Ｔ年内符合震级－频度关系的一组随机地     

Understanding the causes of vulnerabilities for enhancing social-physical resilience: lessons from the Wenchuan earthquake

ABSTRACT

In an effort to understand the social-physical vulnerabilities from the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, this research established and validated a conceptual model for natural disaster analysis. The earthquake severely impacted the built environment, with many buildings being destroyed in the earthquake and from secondary impacts. This vulnerable environment exacerbated the poverty in the local residents because of the lack of flat land and the inaccessibility of the mountainous areas. Therefore, there was an interactive relationship between the built environment vulnerability and the social vulnerability. Due to general poverty and low education levels, social vulnerability in rural areas is often the result of poor quality building construction; in the event of an earthquake, therefore, most economic losses and casualties are the result of building destruction. To enhance social-physical resilience, measures should be adopted to mitigate the vulnerability of the built environment and society through actions such as land use planning, the use of seismic-resistant technologies, and investment in infrastructure, education, industrial development, and environmental protection. This research extracts the reasons for the vulnerabilities through an examination of the interactions between the natural environment, the built environment, and the local society. The insights gained have significant theoretical and practical implications in assisting vulnerable communities resist and adapt to natural hazards to achieve sustainable development.