The European Directive on environmental impact assessment: Implementation at last?

Summary The Commission of the European Communities' directive on environmental impact assessment (EIA) finally came into force in July 1988. The main provisions of the Directive are described, together with the objectives it is intended to achieve and the key areas where member state legislation will need to be effective if the principal requirements of the Directive are to be properly implemented. These include adequate coverage of projects, sufficient information in EIA studies, and effective consultation and public participation. Most European countries have some experience with EIA but, as illustrated by the UK Channel Fixed Link reports, the quality of the studies undertaken is very variable. Recommendations are made for improvements in practice through more effective diffusion of best practice, better provision and use of EIA guidance, more focused EIA research, more effective consultation and closer collaboration between the different parties involved in the EIA process, and both quantitative and qualitative improvements in EIA training. The results of a recent survey of European EIA training activity indicate growing interest, but further progress in improving the provision of EIA training is needed before the Directive can be effectively implemented.Drs Christopher Wood and Norman Lee have both been involved on various Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies for the European Commission and have written widely on EIA and related topics. Both are Senior Lecturers at the University of Manchester and they are co-Directors of its EIA Centre. Christopher Wood teaches mainly in the Department of Town and County Planning, Norman Lee in the Department of Economics.     

Implementation of the European IPPC Directive—BAT guidelines for the cement industry in Cyprus

The European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive 96/61/EC aims to introduce a European-wide system of integrated prevention and control of pollution in order to secure a high level of protection to the environment as a whole. It places obligations on the Member States (MS) to introduce controls that ensure operators comply with the Directive. In this framework, as a part of the implementation process leading to formal accession of Cyprus to the European Union, the National Technical University of Athens has examined all documents related to the Best Available Techniques (BATs) published by Institutes and Organisations, such as the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies in Spain, the Environmental Protection Agency in Ireland, the World Bank Group and the Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works in Greece. A series of guidelines were developed for the application of BATs for 14 categories of the Cypriot industry that fall into the IPPC Directive. The concept of BATs plays a central role in the Directive because it provides a basis for setting Emission Limit Values (ELVs) as well as the principal benchmark for determining the obligations of industrial operators in respect of pollution prevention and control. This paper presents the guidelines for cement manufacture in Cyprus.     

Policy And Practice Improving EIA for Intensive Livestock Projects

Agriculture is being increasingly integrated into the UK's land use planning system and recently approved amendments to the EU's Environmental (Impact) Assessment Directive will further this integration and cause more assessments of more projects on a mandatory basis. This paper reviews recent research on the quality of assessments and argues that Environmental Statements of agricultural projects are of a much lower standard than those for other project types and that improvements will need to be made as a result of the changes to the Directive.     

Discretionary Judgement in Local Planning Authority Decision Making: Screening Development Proposals for Environmental Impact Assessment

Screening is a critical decision-stage in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process and involves the determination of whether or not a development proposal will require EIA. This decision requires a discretionary judgement on whether the development has the potential to cause ‘significant environmental effects’, and consequently there is potential for diversity to exist in formal requests for EIA. Drawing upon a comprehensive survey of Local Planning Authorities (LPAs) in England and Wales, this paper explores the characteristics of LPA screening decision making since the introduction of revised EIA regulations in March 1999. The paper starts with a theoretical overview of rationality, decision making and planning theory, followed by a brief review of the regulatory context of EIA screening. The research approach is then outlined and the survey findings are presented, including a detailed consideration of organizational and individual level analyses set within the context of planning theory judgement debates. Comparisons with other European countries are briefly made, before drawing conclusions and recommendations.     

Policy and Practice

Saudi Arabia has recently begun to implement its General Environmental Regulations. The main purpose is to ensure that environmental considerations are taken into account at all levels of planning with an emphasis on incorporating EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) into development activities. However, there is a need to develop a broad framework of SEA (Strategic Environmental Assessment) for the proper integration of sustainability into decision‐making processes. This paper reviews and discusses a framework for ensuring sustainability in Saudi Arabia, particularly at the local level. The paper develops guidelines and a framework for implementing the principles of sustainability in Saudi municipalities through SEA.     

我国城市总体规划环境影响评价探讨

城市总体规划是城市发展之纲，在我国城市规划体系中占有重要地位。随着环评法的实施，我国已陆续开展了多项城市总体规划环境影响评价工作，取得了理论、方法等方面的进展和实践经验。本文根据城市总体规划的特点和任务探讨了城市总体规划环评的重点，并对城市总体规划环境影响的评价实施主体、层次深度、替代方案、承载力评价、景观影响评价、风险评价和跟踪评价等方面做了进一步的讨论。     

回顾性环境影响评价程序及内容研究

回顾性环境影响评价是环境影响评价的一个分支,是继常规环境影响评价之后,为检验实际环境影响和减缓措施的有效性行为。其工作内容主要包括环境监测、检验与评估、环境管理及其他环境研究。它既是对原环境影响评价过程中所使用的预测模型和结果正确性的验证,又是对原工作内容进行重要的补充和修正,并提出更为合理和实用的环境保护措施及对策     

Mainstreaming environmental impact assessment as a tool for environmental management in Ethiopia: Current challenges and directions for future improvements

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was first entered into force in the United States of America in 1969 through the National Environmental Policy Act. Since then, the EIA was implemented in many other countries. In Ethiopia, EIA was formally introduced in 2002 by Proclamation No. 299/2002 after the establishment of the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) in 1995 and the formulation of the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE) in 1997. This study, which is based on a document review, interviews, and the application of a survey questionnaire, analyzes the procedures and practices of the Ethiopian EIA system, seeks to clarify fundamental information regarding the EIA system and characteristics of the key elements of EIA processes, and finally, offers suggestions that could improve EIA practices in the country. The overall result of this study shows that Ethiopia adopted EIA procedures that are similar to western models; however, despite approximately 15 years of experience, its implementation is still poor to the point that the use of EIA as an instrument of environmental management could be questioned. The challenges identified by this study include institutional, organizational, and professional capacity gaps, which, in turn, have resulted in constraints ranging from improper screening, scoping, and production of EIA reports to ineffective review, monitoring, and post‐project evaluation. Additional challenges to the system include poor governance and corruption, rapid economic growth, and the mushrooming of micro‐ and small‐scale enterprises that cause pollution and environmental degradation. This article also provides comprehensive suggestions to improve EIA practices in Ethiopia.     

开发区回顾性环境影响评价工作要点探讨——以江苏某开发区为例

回顾性环境影响评价是环境影响评价制度的重要组成部分。目前,我国开展回顾性环境影响评价的研究尚处于起步阶段。本文以江苏某开发区为例,重点探讨了开发区回顾性环境影响评价的内涵、作用、意义、程序和内容,旨在为今后开展开发区回顾性环境影响评价提供借鉴。     

Contrasting stories on overcoming governance challenges: the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive in the Netherlands

The European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) has provided the European Member States with a range of interacting governance challenges. This article studies three of these (the need for new administrative arrangements, public participation, and the enforced strict time frame). It questions how these interacting governance challenges were addressed in implementing the WFD in the Netherlands – a particularly interesting country since the European Commission assesses its implementation process in relatively positive terms, while an in-depth study reported on in this article tells a contrasting story. Based on this study, the article concludes that especially the interaction effects between the governance challenges may help us to better understand the outcome of the WFD-implementation process, and to provide more suitable advice as to how to improve the implementation process in future rounds.     

Public involvement in the EIS process

In the United States public involvement in the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) process is required by Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) Guidelines, Executive mandates, and agency guidelines. Public participation after the initial Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and throughout the preparation of the Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS) is desirable for it permits contributions from:

1. those who are directly affected by a proposed project.
2. individuals with expertise in environmental fields that may be affected by government action.

Early public participation can be useful in identifying environmental problems and potential sources of controversy. A systematic approach should be applied by government agencies to solicit public opinion throughout the preparation of the DEIS. Early, active, and meaningful participation particularly by those government and public segments most affected by the proposed project is a positive step towards effectively using the EIS as a management tool for mitigating impacts to the human environment. Here we discuss the role of public participation in the EIS process and develop an approach for initiating early and expressive public participation.     

The role of environmental impact assessment in coal production and utilization

Large-scale exploitation of fossil fuels and nuclear power can have an adverse effect on the human and natural environment. That need not be the case, if the effect on the environment is carefully assessed to ensure the development of a sustainable approach. This paper examines the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) for coal from an international perspective. The concept of EIA is not new. A formalized process of EIA was introduced in the USA in 1970, and more recently similar legislation has been implemented in other countries. The member states of the European Community are required to adopt EIA regulations, as set out in Directive 85/337/EEC. Elsewhere, in Japan and Australia, there are requirements for EIA and a growing need for the process can be seen in developing countries. A comparison is made of the EIA process for coal in the international arena, and exemplary procedures are highlighted. Potential problems such as delays, modifications and additional costs are analysed, and the benefits of EIA, both to industry and environment, are discussed. A database of coal-related EIA would facilitate an exchange of information on the subject.     

An environmental impact assessment of the proposal to build a wind farm at Langdon Common in the North Pennines,UK

Summary This paper measures the diversity of environmental impacts inherent within a proposal by the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) to build a demonstration wind farm at Langdon Common in the North Pennines, UK. This assessment was made in April, 1989 in the wake of the European Community Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and its subsequent interpretation within the UK Town and Country Planning (Assessment of Environmental Effects) Regulations (1988).Langdon Common lies within an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and within a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). These designations create a contentious choice of site made by the CEGB and the extent of environmental impact is subsequently made more broad. While the conclusions drawn are specific to Langdon Common, the methodology evolved within the project lends itself to further application to other sites in the future. The following Environmental Impact Assessment can, therefore, be seen as a step towards the reconciliation of the acceptable siting of wind turbines in the UK and the capacity of the planning system to regulate such development.This paper by Alex Steele received the Institution of Environmental Sciences award and First Prize for the best undergraduate environmental project in the UK in 1989. Alex Steele graduated from Sunderland Polytechnic in that year and now works as an Environmental Planner for a leading company of Environmental Management Consultants.     

Implementation of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive in Finland: Evaluation of the collection network and challenges of the effective WEEE management

Further to the European Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive, setting up efficient collection schemes is necessary to ensure the recovery targets set. Following the subsidiary principle, the WEEE Directive defines only the general requirements for mandatory collection and recycling objectives. The modalities of the logistics and the organisation of the take-back schemes are left to the choice of Member States. In this paper, the implementation of the WEEE Directive and the development of the WEEE recovery infrastructure in Finland are described and the challenges to the effective management of the WEEE recovery system in Finland are expressed. It can be said that the implementation of the WEEE Directive has succeeded in Finland and, at the same time, the legislative basis has been enacted. In addition, a functional WEEE recovery infrastructure has been built and, the collection requirements of the WEEE Directive have been exceeded in a relatively short time. However, the paper outlines that some inefficient practices still exist, particularly in the registration and WEEE collection stages. It is concluded that raising awareness would lead to a more environmentally sound behaviour and would, ultimately, improve WEEE recovery efficiency.     

EIA,Decision-making Theory and Screening and Scoping in UK Practice

As an aid to decision making Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is seen as a rational and systematic process which is often held to be holistic and proactive in its approach to environmental protection (Glasson et al., 1999). The roots of EIA are firmly located within the 1960s' demand for a more systematic and objective approach to environmental decision making and hence within the rationalist model of decision making theory. This paper examines the key stages of the EIA process to assess how far EIA conforms to the rationalist model today. Most research in EIA decision making has focused on the project authorization process and not the crucial decisions made at the earlier stages of screening and scoping. This study examines those early stages within the context of UK EIA practice. From this examination the paper attempts to locate EIA within decision-making theory.     

环境风险评价的实践与发展

环境风险评价（Environmental Risk Assessment ERA）是环境影响评价的一个重要分支,主要分析评价环境中的潜在危险。本文围绕开展ERA的必要怀、国内外ERA发展现状等方面进行了评述,在此基础上针对目前ERA工作中的不足提出了三点建议。     

Ten Years On: An Empirical Analysis of UK Environmental Statement Submissions since the Implementation of Directive 85/337/EEC

Regulations to implement Directive 85/337/EEC have been in operation in the UK for over 10 years. Implementation of the amended Directive (97/11/EC) in March 1999 marked the start of a new phase in environmental impact assessment (EIA), and so a review of the impact of the original Directive upon EIA activity is timely. This paper examines the implementation of the Directive in the UK through an empirical analysis of the publication of environmental statements (ESs) between July 1988 and April 1998. ES submissions are analysed under Annexes I and II of the Directive and under the main UK regulations, and then development control decision outcomes are considered. The implications of selected legislation and policy initiatives for ES submissions are then investigated in detail for four types of project. The Directive has been a major force in stimulating the development and growth of EIA in the UK, although the interaction of policies and legislation (environmental and otherwise) can exert an important influence upon trends in ES submissions.     

EIA application in China's expressway infrastructure: clarifying the decision-making hierarchy

China's EIA Law came into effect in 2003 and formally requires road transport infrastructure development actions to be subject to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIAs (including project EIA and plan EIA, or strategic environmental impact assessment, SEA) have been being widely applied in the expressway infrastructure planning field. Among those applications, SEA is applied to provincial level expressway network (PLEI) plans, and project EIA is applied to expressway infrastructure development 'projects' under PLEI plans. Three case studies (one expressway project EIA and two PLEI plan SEAs) were examined to understand currently how EIAs are applied to expressway infrastructure development planning. Through the studies, a number of problems that significantly influence the quality of EIA application in the field were identified. The reasons causing those problems are analyzed and possible solutions are suggested aimed at enhancing EIA practice, helping deliver better decision-making and ultimately improving the environmental performance of expressway infrastructure.     

EIA-Learning from Experience: Changes in the Quality of Environmental Impact Statements for UK Planning Projects

This paper draws on a research report recently produced (1996) by the authors for the UK Department of the Environment. The principal aim of the research was to establish clearly what changes, if any, there have been in the quality of Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) since the inception of mandatory EIA in 1988, and to explain reasons for the changes. The paper provides a critique of the meaning of 'quality' in an area such as this. Quality relates both to the EIS and to the EIA process. EIS quality can be assessed against various review frameworks in a structured and systematic way; quality can also be assessed according to the perspective of the individual participant in the EIA process. The findings of both macro and micro studies of quality are discussed. The macro study uses a range of review frameworks (minimum regulatory requirements, an EU framework, and comprehensive frameworks developed by EIA academics at UK universities, including Oxford Brookes University) for a large sample of EISs. The micro study uses a structured questionnaire of the participants (local planning officers, developers, consultants and others) involved in a smaller set of detailed case studies. The findings reveal that there has been a learning from experience and an improvementin quality, but they also highlight a number of problems in the EIA process. The paper outlines some of the determinants of the changes in quality, and concludes with recommendations for developments in EIA in response to particular issues raised. These recommendations are set in the context of European Commission amendments to the EC EIA Directive.     

我国现行环境影响评价制度面临的问题与对策

环境影响评价制度在我国经过近30年的发展与完善,在有效加强环境管理,从源头上防止环境污染和生态环境破坏方面起到了重要作用。但从现实看,其并未能从根本上遏制我国生态环境的恶化,各级政府的发展观、环境职能部门的独立性和公正性、评价机构的中立性、环境报告编制的技术性缺失和环境影响评价制度的缺憾等问题都严重制约着环境影响评价的作用发挥,只有解决这些问题,通过完善制度、科学评价,公正审批和有效监督才能让环境影响评价真正成为环境的守护神,实现经济社会发展与自然的和谐。