Initial participation in UK set‐aside and ESA schemes

Under UK set‐aside introduced in 1988, farmers who agree voluntarily to divert at least 20% of their annual cereal area into fallow or other approved use for a 5‐year period may receive annual payments of up to £200 per hectare; whilst in the Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) designated in 1986 and 1987 in parts of the UK, annual area payments are made to farmers who agree voluntarily to manage eligible land in environmentally acceptable ways. It is argued that participation in a voluntary land diversion scheme may depend upon the favourability of farmer attitudes and upon the financial attractiveness of the particular scheme. The determinants of farmer attitudes and the relative importance of attitudes and economics in affecting the entry decision may however vary from farmer to farmer. Consideration of this leads to the definition of four types of farmer. Participation is then predicted under various assumptions: that all farmers are profit‐motivated; that all are profit‐influenced; that all are scheme‐influenced; and that all are peer‐influenced. This sets limits between which, it is argued, participation will in practice fall; and it enables a general discussion of the factors affecting participation. The initial participation rates in UK set‐aside and ESA schemes in England and Wales are reviewed and analysed using the method developed.     

The Cost-effectiveness of Biodiversity Management: A Comparison of Farm Types in Extensively Farmed Areas of Scotland

The cost-effectiveness of biodiversity management of heather, herb-rich grassland and wetland habitats is compared between different farm types in the context of the Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme in Scotland. Biodiversity is measured at two spatial levels. Costs to the public exchequer of habitat management are compared with private costs to the farmer. Biodiversity and cost are combined in cost-effectiveness ratios. Biodiversity, cost and cost-effectiveness differentials are found between farm types for all three habitats. Farms incur negligible opportunity costs in the management of all three habitats, implying farmer retention of compensating ESA management payments. It is concluded that greater account of biodiversity and cost characteristics of entrants to agri-environmental schemes would increase the costeffectiveness and transparency of schemes, and assist towards scheme assessment at the individual farm level.     

Implementing Agri-environment Policy: A Landscape Ecology Perspective

An integrated, landscape-scale approach to countryside management argues for whole farm or business targeting, and for inter-farm co-operation to enhance current Agri-environmental Policy (AEP) and to meet Agri-environmental Policy objectives. This paper describes the preliminary results of a study in the Lake District Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA), using the ArcView GIS. Spatial data describing the characteristics of farms, farm businesses and farmers are analysed. It is suggested that there is scope for spatially adjacent farms to co-operate through multi-farm management agreements, to achieve and advance the stated aims of the Lakes ESA. The discussion focuses on the potential of AEP schemes to be reoriented away from their present focus on individual farms and holdings, towards a broader geographical coverage and an integrated approach to the management of land across ownership boundaries.     

城市生态敏感区规划控制研究——以南通为例

界定了城市生态敏感区的概念,将南通城市生态敏感区划分为水源保护区、河流、生态廊道和绿地四种类型.通过RS和GIS技术获取了南通市各类型生态敏感区的对象及空间位置,提出了南通各生态敏感区的规划控制原则和范围;采用概算法和碳氧平衡法计算南通市生态敏感区面积控制阈值,与规划控制面积核算比较可知,南通市城市生态敏感区规划控制面积满足南通城市生态需求.     

Policy and reality of Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Whitman County,Washington, USA

The Washington State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) promotes the conservation of natural resources through procedural review of proposed actions which may impact natural systems. There are, however, many actions specifically exempt from the SEPA review process. Since many exempt actions could have significant adverse effects on natural resources at one location and not another, the SEPA statute contains a provision that enables local governments to designate Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs). Within the ESAs, these potentially adverse activities are subject to SEPA review. Local governments have complete control over the exact definition of the ESA criteria and the types of local projects exempt from SEPA. Whitman County, the most productive wheat-producing county in Washington, has recognized the need for conservation of its natural resources in its comprehensive plan but has not implemented the ESA provision. A representative watershed within Whitman County was used as a case study to identify areas which would qualify for ESA status. In these areas, specific soil, water, and biological characteristics or resources were identified as sensitive to certain common land uses. Significant differences were found between state and county policies regarding ESAs and actual conditions within the watershed. It may be more effective for the state to manage ESAs on a consistent and regional basis.     

Local government policies toward environmentally sensitive areas in British Columbia,Canada; Washington and Oregon,USA

While there has been sustained debate on the issue of provincial and state versus local government environmental planning, maintaining privately owned natural resources in the public interest is increasingly viewed as beyond the scope of local governments alone. This paper describes and compares province- and state-level mandates and options for local governments (i.e., city, county, or district) to regulate land uses of environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs) in British Columbia in Canada and in Washington and Oregon in the United States. We define ESAs as landscape elements or places that are vital to the long-term maintenance of biological diversity, soil, water, and other natural resources, especially as they relate to human health, safety, and welfare, both on-site and in a regional context. Underlying similarities are that all three jurisdictions legally express the need for land-use planning by local governments in managing ESAs. Although all three jurisdictions exhibit similar problems in their attempt to accomplish this, ESA planning by local governments is an optional process in British Columbia and Washington but mandatory in Oregon. Furthermore, actual processes prescribed by each of the three jurisdictions are quite different. The information base upon which local regulation of privately held ESAs depends is variable, both within and between the province- and statelevel jurisdictions. Other than for some specific water-related resources, standard definitions and inventory methods for ESAs are lacking, as is coordination among local governments or among the province- and state-level governments. This study concludes that there is a need for a regional environmental information system in the Pacific Northwest based upon an integrated and scientific approach toward ESA structures and functions.     

Towards a planning support system for environmental management and agri-environmental measures--the Colorfields study

The authors present the beginnings of a planning support system (PSS) for agri-environmental measures exemplified by a virtual implementation of Colorfields and blooming strips on model farms, based on real-world data. This paper starts with an introduction to the Colorfields, a concept for transdisciplinary and sustainable landscape design of set-aside land. Colorfields comprise of blooming strips of flowering annual or biennial plants, which are designed and drilled in pattern on fallow land creating Land Art. The temporary scenic arrangements of the Colorfields combine the advantages of ecological strips, e.g. providing habitats for insects (especially bees), improving soil fertility through the cultivation of intercrops, with improvements of the social recognition of farmers as producers of pleasant landscapes instead of monoculture fields.The prototype of the PSS uses two software tools of different scientific origin, the bio-economic modeling system MODAM and the landscape visualization system Lenné3D, which are linked based on geo-data. The resulting system helps to assess the economic effects and visualizes the effects of the specific landuse patterns under different scenarios.The economic assessment of blooming strips on arable land and of one Colorfield on fallow land shows that these measures prove to be profitable from an economic viewpoint assuming the current area payments for the obligatory European Union set-aside program. Furthermore, the visualizations enable the design to be tested virtually by exploring the resultant scenery. They provide artists, planners and stakeholders including farmers with a tool to virtually wander through landscape scenarios supporting a collaborative design and a shared vision for the community.The results of the two model farms and previous case studies for Colorfields demonstrate how current policy conditions could be used for the improvement of environmental and scenic qualities. Furthermore, the ability of the tools, MODAM and Lenné3D, suggests to support and promote these activities.     

Does intensity of change matter? Factors affecting adoption of agri-environmental schemes in Spain

Agri-environmental schemes (AES) are the main policy instrument currently available in the EU to promote environmentally-friendly farming practices. However, the rate of adoption of these measures is still relatively low in southern Europe, and understanding how these rates can be increased is still an open issue. The goal of this paper is to increase that understanding by testing whether the factors which determine AES sign-up decisions are influenced by the intensity of change in farming practices that are brought about by adopting the scheme. A micro-economic model reflecting farmer AES sign-up decisions is proposed and applied to two schemes in Spain respectively requiring major or minor intensity of change in practices by surveying farmers eligible for both schemes. The results show that farm structural factors play a role when major practice change is required by the scheme, yet when dealing with minor change, individual farmer characteristics play a more determining role. Social capital and farmer attitude are important factors in both the AES surveyed. Therefore, it may be concluded that improving agronomic design would be an important tool to improve farmer participation in AES where major change is involved, whereas improved targeting and extension would help uptake for AES involving a lesser degree of change.     

Agriculture in environmentally sensitive areas: implementing the ESA measure in Denmark

Implementation of the environmentally sensitive areas (ESA) measure in Denmark as part of the EC Structures Regulation is described. Immediate effects and the way the agreements are expected to influence landscape development are evaluated. Of the 915 designated ESAs, agreements have only been signed in two‐thirds of the areas. In those areas in which ground water protection is an objective, ‘agreement coverage has been particularly low, whereas relatively more agreements have been signed for coastal areas dominated by salt meadows. More than 3000 agreements have been made, most of them comprising existing grassland such as meadows, salt meadows and dry grasslands. Landscape protection is the most important function of the ESA measure. The effectiveness of the programme towards environmental protection and landscape improvement is evaluated as being limited. Even though a large proportion of the agreement areas, according to the farmers, would be managed in the same way without an agreement, it is not possible to make definite conclusions about the effect on landscape protection before the five‐year agreement period has ended.     

The relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and the intensity of milk production in Ireland

European Union agri-environmental schemes aim to reduce the environmental impact of agricultural production, but were developed before consideration of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Life cycle assessment methodology provided a framework for comparing emissions as kg CO2 equivalent per kg of energy corrected milk (ECM) (kg CO2 kg(-1) ECM yr(-1)) and per hectare (kg CO2 ha(-1) yr(-1)) for farms both within and outside the Irish agri-environmental scheme. The agri-environmental scheme farms operate extensive systems from 40 to 120 cows producing between 3032 and 5946 kg ECM cow(-1) lactation(-1). The cows are fed on grass, conserved silage, and concentrates. Supplementation ranged between 250 and 620 kg cow(-1) yr(-1). The conventional farms had between 30 and 77 milking cows producing 4736 to 6944 kg ECM cow(-1) lactation(-1). Supplementation ranged from 400 to 1000 kg cow(-1) yr(-1). The emissions from each unit were estimated using published emissions factors and possible error was evaluated by using ranges for each factor. Calculated emissions ranged from 0.92 to 1.51 kg CO2 kg(-1) ECM yr(-1) and 5924 to 8323 kg CO2 ha(-1). On average, total emissions from conventional farms were around 18% (p = 0.01) greater than the agri-environmental scheme farms and emissions per hectare (total area required) were 17% greater (p = 0.02) but there was no significant difference (p = 0.335) in terms of emission per unit milk produced. To evaluate greenhouse gas emissions for each farm in terms of the system intensity it was necessary to define a measure of intensification and area per liter of milk produced that was best.     

Are 'other gainful activities' on farms good for the environment?

There has been a lot of academic interest in the pursuit of diversification activities and off-farm employment by farm household members. This is regarded as an important strategy for mitigating the effects of low agricultural income. One aspect of the debate about these so-called 'Other Gainful Activities' (OGAs) is whether they are associated with any environmental improvement on farms. In this paper, we use three approaches to analyse this issue. We examine whether measures of agricultural intensity are associated with the pursuit of OGAs by farmers and their spouses. We examine whether OGAs are more likely on farms where there is an ESA Management Agreement. Finally, we examine whether OGAs are associated with the farmer's stated environmental intentions. Although we tentatively conclude that there is a relationship between OGA involvement and these measures of environmental performance or concern by farmers, the magnitude of the association is small relative to other variables such as farm size, the type of land use, the form of business and recent agricultural training.     

Review of Agri-Environment Indexes and Stewardship Payments

Agri-environment programs aim to secure environmental and social stewardship services through payments to farmers. A critical component of many agri-environment programs is an agri-environment index (AEI) used to quantify benefits and target investments. An AEI will typically comprise multiple indicators, which are weighted and combined using a utility function, to measure the benefit of investment options (e.g., projects, farms, regions). This article presents a review of AEIs with 11 case studies from agri-environment programs in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom. We identify a generic procedure used to define AEIs and explore the implications of alternative methodological approaches. We conclude that AEIs have become an extremely important policy instrument and make suggestions for their improvement.     

The targeting of rural environmental policies: an assessment of agri‐environmental schemes in the UK

The targeting of environmental policies holds the key to their effectiveness and value for money. In this paper we look specifically at the targeting of the various agri‐environmental schemes likely to be on offer to UK farmers under a reformed Common Agricultural Policy. The manner in which these schemes are targeted—at groups of farmers or areas of land—and the precision with which target groups or target land is identified will be critical in their success or failure. One approach is to target the farming systems thought most environmentally sensitive. This avoids drawing lines on a map and may allow policy makers to channel money into the hands of economically disadvantaged farmers or those vulnerable to policy change. But there is also a need for a more radical and geographically‐targeted approach if problems like soil erosion and aquifer protection—requiring drastic land use shifts within specified areas—are to be tackled effectively. We assess the scope for using existing datasets to identify land that should be targeted under an American‐style Conservation Reserve Programme in the UK.     

“Loyals” and “Optimizers”: Shedding Light on the Decision for or Against Organic Agriculture Among Swiss Farmers

The choice between organic and conventional agriculture for farmers is modeled as an ethical decision. Farmers are either loyal to one of the systems or they optimize between systems. This model is empirically validated through a survey among Swiss farmers. A cluster analysis separates farmers into loyal organic, loyal conventional, and optimizing farmers. However, the three resulting clusters bore some, but not all the necessary characteristics of “optimizers” and “loyals.” A probit analysis shows that loyal farmers have larger farms than optimizers. Loyal organic farmers receive less direct payments than optimizers, which confirms the utility-maximizing pattern of the latter group.     

Systematic studies of shop and leisure voucher incentives for household recycling

This work reports on a series of medium scale trials of various voucher based incentives schemes for household recycling carried out in England. They show that increases of 10–20% in participation rates can be achieved with 3-month schemes. The results are drawn from 15 sub-projects carried out in 6 districts where parameters such as voucher value, types of shops used, demographics and community types were varied overall, allowing their effects to be explored. Surprisingly, the results show that the success does not depend on the affluence of the areas. Statistically strong data shows little difference across deprivation indices. Successful schemes were those where the vouchers were awarded on an individual household basis (very important), the value of each voucher was over £1 (€0.60), and the shops or facilities they are valid for were within half a mile (with suggestions from the public that if usable at supermarkets they would travel further). Although some improvements were seen in areas where participation rates were already over 65%, the schemes are more successful in areas which are not already achieving so highly, right down to those below 20%. Although schemes can be designed for maximum effect in small targeted areas, they could also be used on a large scale if e.g. supermarket vouchers were used. The study also reports on the costs of the schemes, which range from £5.15 per household to £12.10 per household over 3 months (including monitoring work). Possible savings of up to 50% are indicated.     

Systematic studies of shop and leisure voucher incentives for household recycling

This work reports on a series of medium scale trials of various voucher based incentives schemes for household recycling carried out in England. They show that increases of 10–20% in participation rates can be achieved with 3-month schemes. The results are drawn from 15 sub-projects carried out in 6 districts where parameters such as voucher value, types of shops used, demographics and community types were varied overall, allowing their effects to be explored. Surprisingly, the results show that the success does not depend on the affluence of the areas. Statistically strong data shows little difference across deprivation indices. Successful schemes were those where the vouchers were awarded on an individual household basis (very important), the value of each voucher was over £1 (€0.60), and the shops or facilities they are valid for were within half a mile (with suggestions from the public that if usable at supermarkets they would travel further). Although some improvements were seen in areas where participation rates were already over 65%, the schemes are more successful in areas which are not already achieving so highly, right down to those below 20%. Although schemes can be designed for maximum effect in small targeted areas, they could also be used on a large scale if e.g. supermarket vouchers were used. The study also reports on the costs of the schemes, which range from £5.15 per household to £12.10 per household over 3 months (including monitoring work). Possible savings of up to 50% are indicated.     

The greening of agricultural policy: Scotland's environmentally sensitive areas (Esas)

The United Kingdom's 1986 Agriculture Act provided the basis for the designation of Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) “in order to contribute towards the introduction or the maintenance of farming practices compatible with the requirements of the protection of the environment”. This paper examines the establishment of ESAs in Scotland, setting their creation and operation against the background of the move away from productionist farm support policies. There is consideration of how agriculture and the environment have fared since the first Scottish ESAs were created in 1987, with special reference to the Breadalbane ESA.     

MULTISOURCE/MULTIQUALITY AGRICULTURAL WATER USE DECISIONMAKING1

ABSTRACT: The importation of water into an existing irrigated agricultural area raises many questions about farm profitability and suggests many adjustment alternatives open to farmers. In particular, how will farmers respond to a new additional water source of differing cost, availability, and quality? Mathematical programming models of representative irrigated farms in Pinal County, Arizona, were developed to project agricultural adjustments to new water from the Central Arizona Project now under construction. The techniques developed have broad application to similar water resource projects involving the conjunctive use of multiple water sources of differing qualities. Regional agricultural activities are described by defining and modeling multiple representative farms which account for economies due to size and different water sources of differing price and quality. Various management schemes can be evaluated by properly selected representative farm models.     

Result-oriented approaches to the management of drinking water catchments in agricultural landscapes

Management of water quality in drinking water catchments is of ongoing, high importance as nitrate concentrations are often still very high. We analysed the Augsburg catchment in Germany, a unique example where a result-oriented approach has been implemented. We investigated the historical evolution of the water protection programme, the result-oriented payment contracts with farmers, and farmer satisfaction with the contracts, based on interviews with the water utility and farmers as well as an analysis of the literature. Today, the water protection programme has been successfully implemented, and a significant reduction of nitrate concentration was achieved due to the following factors: (1) investment of non-negligible amounts of money for high compensation and remuneration payments, (2) different contract options, (3) farmers’ participation in the negotiation process for result-oriented payment contracts, (4) involvement of “outside” people and institutions in negotiation processes, (5) anticipation of starting a programme when nitrate levels were still far below legislative thresholds, and (6) a political and legislative framework allowing direct decisions by a water supplier.