Medieval London and its supply hinterlands

The essay reviews the impact of London??s demands for food, drink and fuel on the farming systems and specialisation in the regions from which it drew supplies. Focusing on the well-recorded period around 1,300, when London was a major but second-ranking European city, it makes comparisons with other European cities in the same period and with London in later centuries, as the city developed a world role. Despite its small size by modern standards, medieval London??s impact on its hinterland was distinct, dynamic, highly commercialised and extensive. It shaped rural landscapes and agrarian practices in ways which in key respects conform to modern theories of spatial specialisation. London??s environmental influence operated within an international context, where the opening up of distant resources could affect choices concerning specialisation in and close to the city. Demographic change and shifts in consumption arising from changing standards of living were also influential. This left a marked ??urban footprint?? in production, marketing and the generation of waste. Moreover, its distinctive political context influenced London??s attitude towards managing its supply chains, differentiating it from many of its European counterparts. Medieval observers recognised those landscapes and their connection with the city, but did not theorise them in present-day terms.     

中国城市温室气体清单研究

介绍城市温室气体排放特征和国际城市温室气体清单研究进展,研究了全球城市化和城市CO2排放的强正相关性,以及中国城市清单方法研究起步较早但发展缓慢的特点。分析了城市温室气体清单相对国家清单的特征,即城市清单编制往往采用消费模式,区别于国家清单的生产模式;国际城市清单中往往包括了由于外调电和供暖产生的CO2排放,同时城市温室气体清单编制灵活性和针对性更强。针对我国城市温室气体清单研究的不足,提出了我国城市温室气体清单方法,强调中国城市采用尺度1+尺度2的范围,暂不考虑尺度3的范围,即生产+消费的混合模式,并且在城市市域温室气体排放研究的基础上,加强狭义城市温室气体排放水平的研究。选择北京市和纽约市,对比分析了两个城市CO2排放特征,结果显示,在确定的清单体系下,北京市和纽约市具有较好的可比性。纽约市的总排放量(尺度1+尺度2)略低于北京市排放量,人均排放量略高于北京市。     

History of the urban environmental imprint: introduction to a multidisciplinary approach to the long-term relationships between Western cities and their hinterland

This paper introduces a series of 11 studies on the relationships between large Western cities (Paris, London, Brussels, Vienna, Barcelona, Athens, New York, Providence) and their surrounding territories over a long historical time period. The concept of hinterland is introduced to designate a rural territory structured by its function of supplying the city with food, fuel, water and other material. The papers question the usefulness of this concept in the current globalized world, where cities are often considered as simple nodes of a network of worldwide trade exchanges, but where new citizen aspirations for reconnecting urban and rural territories are emerging.     

Ecological footprints and shadows in an urban estuary, Narragansett Bay, RI (USA)

Because the rise of cities in North America was much later than in many other parts of the world, their connections to the hinterland were influenced early in their development by railroads and steam-powered water transport. These fossil fuel-based links made it possible to widely separate the ??upstream?? autotrophic supporting systems from the heterotrophic cities. Here, we take a different look at the connection between a city (Providence, RI, USA) and its supporting natural systems by focusing on the export of industrial and metabolic wastes from the city to the ??downstream?? coastal ecosystem in Narragansett Bay. In this way, we can track the history of a city by examining the concentrations of nutrients, metals, and hydrocarbons in the water and sediments of the estuary. In the greater Providence metropolitan area at the head of Narragansett Bay, there was rapid population and industrial expansion during the 1800s without the proper infrastructure to deal with water supply for public safety and health. On the other hand, the absence of a public water supply kept industrial and metabolic wastes largely on land. However, from the fall of 1871, on with the construction of a public water supply and sewer system, human wastes began flowing into the estuary. By reconstructing the historical record of metals and other pollutants, we illustrate clear temporal and spatial gradients of urban impact on the bay. Unfortunately, while numerous studies during the 1970s and 1980s focused on documenting metal and hydrocarbon pollution in the bay, there has been little effort to quantify the impact of mitigation efforts that have greatly reduced the input of metals and hydrocarbons to the system. Nutrient reductions are more recent and ongoing.     

Quantifying and managing food-sourced nutrient metabolism in Chinese cities

Food supply and consumption are critical for sustaining urban system functions, and are key determinants of the quantity and pathways of nutrient flow in cities. Nutrient elements from urban food consumption are becoming major pollutant sources in urban environments. Therefore, understanding flow magnitude and pathways, the role of a growing population, and changing dietary structure and technology in future nutrient metabolism are essential to understand cities as ecosystems and urban environmental management. Taking the city of Xiamen, a rapid urbanizing area of Southeast China as a case study, we simulated urban metabolism of three major food-sourced nutrient elements (carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus or CNP) over 1991–2010 and environmental emissions. Impacts of future population growth, dietary habit change, and waste treatment improvement on various environments were forecast by scenario analysis. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to test how different waste treatment technologies affect environmental emissions from food-sourced nutrients. Our results show that the food-sourced CNP had various metabolic fluxes through urban systems, with carbon mostly emitted into the air and nitrogen and phosphorus mostly discharged into landfills and water. Population growth and dietary structure change will accelerate increases of nutrient emissions to the environment, whereas enhancing current waste treatment technology can just alter emissions to different environments. Based on the results, we discuss how food-sourced nutrient metabolism can be better managed, to enhance connectivity between cities and their hinterlands and maintain environmental emissions within the carrying capacity of the cities.     

Application of the City Blueprint Approach to assess the challenges of water management and governance in Quito (Ecuador)

In this paper, we provide an assessment of the challenges of water, waste and climate change in the city of Quito by performing the City Blueprint Approach consisting of three assessment frameworks: (1) the Trends and Pressure Framework (TPF), (2) the City Blueprint Framework (CBF) and (3) the water Governance Capacity Framework (GCF). The TPF summarizes the main social, environmental and financial aspects that may affect urban water management. The CBF provides a clear overview of sustainable urban water management performance and its bottlenecks in municipalities and regions. The GCF comprises nine governance conditions which each consist of three indicators. The GCF provides insight in the most effective improvements to increase the governance capacity to address the identified urban water challenges. Our results show that poor wastewater treatment and long-term drinking water security are Quito’s main water challenges that may be jeopardized given the city’s rapid urbanization and economic pressure. The GCF analysis reveals that cooperation between stakeholders, implementing capacity and citizens’ awareness are the most important conditions for further development to find adequate solutions for Quito’s long-term drinking water security. We also suggest that more attention should be drawn to the transparency, accountability and participation principles. The results of Quito show that the City Blueprint Approach can serve as an affordable quick-scan to facilitate cities in their strategic planning to reach their sustainable development goals.     

安徽省黄山市绿色发展时空趋势研究

基于《安徽省绿色发展指标体系》,结合黄山市的具体经济、社会与环境特征,设计包括6项一级指标和33项二级指标的黄山市绿色发展指标体系,运用基于群决策的层次分析法确定各级绿色发展指标的权重。基于2004～2016年统计数据,评估黄山市及各县区绿色发展水平的时空变化趋势与特征,利用聚类分析和主成分分析确定造成黄山市县区绿色发展时空差异的主导因素。结果表明：(1)2004～2016年黄山市及各区县绿色发展水平整体呈现上升趋势,究其原因,主要在于生态保护和增长质量这2方面绿色发展指数的显著增加。(2)黄山市各县区的绿色发展时空差异较大。造成2016年黄山市各县区绿色发展水平差异的指标主要集中于土地覆盖与土地利用、资源利用效率和污染物排放量。(3)2004～2016年间,黄山市在资源利用、环境治理和绿色生活指数方面进步有限,建议黄山市近期可以将其绿色发展工作重点置于提高能源和水资源利用效率、降低能耗、减少各主要污染物排放量和促进绿色出行等方面。     

"两型城市"的框架研究

本文从"两型城市"内涵研究入手,建立了包括内涵、目标、测度工具、领域和政策体系的"两型城市"研究框架.在内涵研究方面,确定了"两型城市"的实质就是实现与物质消耗脱钩的城市发展,即实现城市发展的同时减少资源消耗和污染排放,走出一条新型的低物质化的城市发展道路.在目标设定方面,通过情景分析,提出中国未来城市发展的适宜目标.在测度工具方面,建立了可以真实反映城市发展与资源环境脱钩关系的"两型城市"生态效率指标体系,及针对三个关键领域的拓展模型.在领域建设方面,确立城市建设、城市产业、城市消费是实现城市脱钩发展的三个关键领域,建议开展有针对性的土地集约化与城市土地空间的脱钩发展、物质循环化与城市生产领域的脱钩发展、消费服务化与城市生活方式的脱钩发展.在对策保障方面,提出依据治理理论创新"两型城市"的政策体系.     

The growing water imprint of Athens (Greece) throughout history

Throughout its long history from the fifth century B.C. until today, the city of Athens managed to satisfy a gradually increasing urban demand for water supply with reserves obtained by the diversion of freshwater. At first, the water was displaced from the adjacent territories and with time from more distant basins, extending the water imprint of the city on its hinterland. This article traces the history of the development of successive water supply infrastructures, which has resulted in the current situation where Athens controls a significant amount of the water reserves of two (in a total of fourteen) Greek River Basin Districts (Attica and Western Sterea Ellada). With the exception of a short period of drought (1989?C1993), no serious effort has ever been made by the decision makers to slow down the increase of urban per capita consumption in the city. The water imprint of Athens is also linked to the disposal of wastewater in the coastal waters of the Saronic Gulf, since wastewater treatment has been established from 1985 onwards. New lines of thinking are suggested for meeting the needs of the still-growing city of Athens without further increasing its water imprint.     

基于地学信息图谱的合肥市城市扩展时空特征及驱动力分析

利用多时相遥感影像,借助ArcGIS平台,采用空间形态分析、等扇分析、等距分析及分形分析等方法,以城市扩展强度、紧凑度、分形维数、重心坐标、扩展弹性系数等为指标,基于地学信息图谱分析了1987~2011年合肥市城市扩展时空特征及其驱动力。结果表明：合肥市在经历了轴向放射状扩展、双核组团扩展及轴间填充后,城市形态由不规则团块状向星楔形、连体双星形转变;24 a间,城市用地面积增长了22415 km2,城市规模扩大了455倍;2000年以前基本保持中、低速扩展,进入21世纪后,开始高速扩展;城市空间主要沿交通线向西南、东南、东、东北等方向非均衡延展,城市扩展最强烈的区域约在距城区中心8 km处,城市重心不断向南偏西方向转移;扩展过程中,城市紧凑度呈“W”型波动,分形维数呈“M”型波动,扩展弹性系数呈“∧”型波动,城市形态最终向着稳定、合理化方向发展;自然环境、经济发展、人口增长、交通建设、政府行为等是合肥市城市扩展的主要驱动力量     

基于改进熵值法的城市“精明增长”综合测度——以长江三角洲16市为例

“精明增长”是资源环境约束下中国城市可持续增长的必然选择,该理论的中国化与适应性研究至关重要。将理论内涵与中国城市增长实际需求相结合,构建包含城市规模、城市福利、城市空间和城市消耗四增长维度的城市“精明增长”综合测评模型,并运用改进熵值算法,对1999~2008年长江三角洲地区从时序变动与截面比较进行实证研究。结果表明：长三角16市在考察期内增长逐年更为精明;上海、南京、杭州城市增长更为精明,其余城市熵值评分考察期内波动较大,且空间分布有两极分化的趋势;四增长维度影响综合评价的权重由高至低分别为福利维度、规模维度、消耗维度与空间维度,城市福利和规模增长是影响城市增长精明程度的主要方面,两维度中反映城市环境、产业结构、就业结构、城市化水平的指标贡献较大;城市消耗和空间维度权重较低,其中反映土地与生活能源消耗的指标作用明显,需要加大城市消耗的控制和内涵空间增长的拓展     

中国低碳城市关注度研究

本文通过文献计量和社交大数据挖掘的方法统计到包含"低碳"和"城市"的文献共8 574篇,新浪微博51 081条。利用文献代表学者对于低碳城市的观点,利用新浪微博代表公众对于低碳城市的关注度,分别统计文献和新浪微博中城市出现频率以及关键词出现频率并进行分析。结果表明与低碳城市相关的文献和新浪微博从2010年开始增长,2013年达到峰值,2014年后略有回落。文献和新浪微博中出现频率最高的前30位城市基本一致,城市出现频率与城市行政地位和政策支持力度高度相关,另外文献和新浪微博中均未统计到的城市还有3个。词频统计结果表明:公众和学者对于低碳城市认知相差较大,学者更关注低碳城市建设和经济之间的关系,以及低碳城市对环境的影响程度。公众对于低碳城市的关注角度主要是从日常生活出发,更偏向于把低碳城市理解为低碳生活。建议政府进一步加大低碳城市的宣传力度,通过调整政策加大对非低碳试点城市和欠发达城市的扶持力度。并出台低碳城市的考核细则和评价标准,进一步理顺低碳发展与经济建设和环境保护的关系。     

城市消费结构变动的环境效应及作用机理探析

城市生态经济系统是一个由“环境-资源-生产-消费-环境”组成的物质循环系统．在这一物质循环系统中消费通过前后相关联，从生产到资源利用和直接向环境排放废弃物两个方向影响着城市环境。据此．以河谷型大城市兰州市为例．以能源、交通、水资源和家庭消费等四项指标代表消费结构构成．利用灰色关联度模型等计量模型来定量研究1990-2002年13年尺度下消费构成变动对环境的影响．探讨城市消费结构变动的环境效应及其作用机理。     

Typifying cities to streamline the selection of relevant environmental sustainability indicators for urban water supply and sewage handling systems: a recommendation

Measuring performance and setting targets and benchmarks for the future entail the adoption of metrics or indicators. Sustainability is a multi-pronged objective encompassing social, economic, health, cultural, governance and environmental aspects. Indicators can be grouped under these categories. The selection of environmental sustainability indicators for a water and wastewater utility in a city needs to be based on concerns specific to the utility in question. The authors, in this paper, have recommended the classification of cities into city types based on specific attributes and identification of relevant environmental sustainability indicators, from a pool of 13 indicators, for these different city types. Having selected the relevant indicators, utilities can use them as tools to improve their environmental performance. The purpose is to not facilitate inter-utility comparisons within or across city types. Every utility would compare its environmental performance at a given point in time with what it was in the past. Towards the end, the paper also applies the methodology to nine cities across four continents—Europe (Oslo, Trondheim and Turin), Asia (the National Capital Territory of Delhi, Beijing, Tel Aviv and Male), North America (Sacramento) and South America (São Paulo). In all, 13 environmental sustainability indicators have been identified. Two cities—Oslo and Trondheim (both from Norway) belong to the same city type, while the other seven are different from each other in this regard. The number of relevant indicators ranged from 4 for Trondheim to 11 for Tel Aviv. The methodology is not restricted to urban water supply and sewage handling systems. It can be extended to other infrastructure systems as well—waste management, transportation, etc.     

北京环境库兹涅茨曲线假设的验证

城市在我国国民经济和社会发展中的地位举足轻重,其高速的经济增长带来了巨大的资源消耗与环境压力。2005年北京人均GDP突破5000美元,处于工业化中期和重化工阶段。在这一特定发展阶段和北京举办奥运会的背景下,如何通过综合决策。推动北京的资源消耗和污染排放同经济增长尽快达到解耦具有重要的现实意义。针对上述问题,本文利用环境库兹涅茨曲线（Envirommental Kunznets Curve。EKC）假设,以北京为例验证EKC假设及其条件。本文采用北京市1990—2004年闾的序列数据建立计量模型。解析十类环境指标的EKC演变轨迹和阶段特征。验证表明：除工业废气排放量和工业固体废弃物产生量呈N形外。其它环境指标虽下降或倒U形。即已跨越了EKC顶点正逐步实现解耦。本文引入了“强度EKC曲线簇”,通过确定不同城市在该坐标系中的相对位置来比较城市间的耦合状态。在此基础上,本文利用PSR（Press-State-Response）政策分析框架。从环境政策、产业结构和技术进步探讨了北京EKC演变的驱动因子。     

宁波城市基础设施现代化水平综合评价与预测

从道路交通、给水能源、信息通讯、环境卫生和排水排污5个方面构建了宁波市城市基础设施现代化评价指标体系,在此基础上选取1997~2003年有关统计数据对宁波城市基础设施现代化水平进行了定量评价,结合宁波市城市建设实际,分析了宁波城市基础设施现代化建设中的主要建设绩效和存在的问题,利用灰色系统预测模型,对宁波市城市基础设施现代化发展水平进行预测。结果表明：近期2005年宁波市城市基础设施现代化综合指数将达到83.8%,初具现代化城市基础设施建设的雏形;中期2010年,城市基础设施现代化综合指数将达到95.0%,具有较高的建设水平,但城市基础设施现代化建设任务仍较艰巨。提出4点加快宁波市城市基础设施现代化建设的对策建议。     

Istanbul: the challenges of integrated water resources management in Europa’s megacity

Effective integrated water resources management (IWRM) and developments impacting on water resources are recognized as key components of environmentally sustainable development. Istanbul (Turkey) is a very large metropolitan city with a population of approximately 14 million. Istanbul is one of the 23 megacities (metropolitan areas with a population of more than 10 million) in the world and one of the most rapidly growing cities in Europe. The annual population growth is 2.8 %. The population growth in the city is almost twice the overall rate of the whole of Turkey, because of a large in-migration. The present study is a baseline assessment of IWRM of Istanbul and also provides a critical review of Istanbul’s future challenges. The assessment is part of an action on water governance (City Blueprints) in the context of the European Innovation Partnership on Water of the European Commission. The City Blueprint indicator approach and process have been applied as first step of gaining a better understanding of IWRM and the challenges ahead. This is done by using well-established and high-quality data sets, a relatively cost-effective online survey and a relatively simple questionnaire. Istanbul has set a good example to the challenges faced in water supply in megacities, where illegal settlements on watershed zones posed a threat to scarce water resources. Despite these enormous efforts, the projected future population growth and climate change in Istanbul will necessitate further major transitions towards sustainable IWRM. This holds for all aspects of the water cycle: water quality, water quantity, water supply and sanitation, coping with extreme weather events (floods and droughts), as well as for the protection of the sources of water, i.e. ecosystem conservation. Istanbul is a place where problems emerge and solutions need to be found. The time window available to do this is rapidly closing. As such, this review of IWRM of Istanbul confirms the conclusions of the World Economic Forum that water supply is one of the top three global risks for both the impact and likelihood. Our framework has been applied for nearly 40 cities, and the results for Istanbul are discussed in the broader context of recent initiatives on water governance and smart cities by the European Commission.     

南京市经济发展与环境污染关系的实证研究

根据南京市1991～2003年经济与环境数据,分析经济发展与环境污染的相互关系,建立了南京市经济增长与环境污染水平的计量模型,进而评价了南京市的环境保护政策。研究表明：作为一个重化工业城市,南京市自20世纪90年代以来,在经济高速发展的情况下,其环境恶化程度逐步得到遏制,部分环境指标与人均GDP演替轨迹呈现显著的环境库兹涅茨曲线特征。这主要归功于南京市政府近年来有效的环境政策和巨额的环境投资。     

区域用水结构演变规律与调控对策研究

我国水资源严重短缺,在新的形势下,必须根据经济发展调整用水结构.本文以地处西北干旱区的榆林市为例,通过收集榆林市1990-2005年国民经济各行业用水量,结合信息熵原理,计算出不同年份用水量熵值及优势度动态演化情况.结果表明,榆林市用水系统熵值由1990年的0.569增加到2005年的0.667,总体呈上升趋势,表明榆林市用水结构趋向无序.同时,系统的均衡度也呈增加趋势,这表明当地用水系统在趋于无序发展的同时,用水系统的均衡程度有所提高,系统均衡性增强.从地区来看,南六县的用水系统熵值要高于北六县,且南六县用水系统熵值一直处于下降趋势,北六县则在波动中表现出一定的上升趋势,这与南六县长期从事特色农业,产业结构相对比较稳定,而北六县主要发展工业,导致用水结构中农业、工业、生活用水结构变化较大有关.最后,结合榆林市实际,提出"南护水源,北抑需求"的总体调控思路,通过建立权威、高效、协调的管理机制,推进水管理体制改革、加强立法和执法监督,规范水资源管理行为、因地制宜,调整和优化产业结构, 大力发展生态型低耗水产业、明确水权、建立水市场,制定合理水价、广泛宣传,积极引导,改变用水观念等措施,不断调整用水结构,最终实现经济社会可持续发展.     

Lisbon’s womb: an approach to the city metabolism in the turn to the twentieth century

The consumption and production of food products in the municipality of Lisbon in the 1890–1900 decade is assessed with the support of historical cartography and statistical resources. For the first time, food production in a municipality in the turn to the twentieth century is accounted and simultaneously subject of a visual analysis of the land used for agriculture and of the water infrastructures that supported such uses. Agriculture occupied at least 40 % of the territory of the city, while the built environment occupied no more than 16 % of the territory. However, local production of food was far from supplying most of the citizens’ needs, and substantial food imports were needed. In this context, the municipality behaved like a heterotrophic system, highly dependent on the external supply of resources. Moreover, comparing to other European cities at the time Lisbon was facing in the end of the nineteenth century a late and slow transition from an agrarian social metabolism to an industrial one, suggesting that Lisbon was still relatively high-solar-powered as compared to other European cities at the time that were already highly fossil-fuel-powered.