Harmful and Needless Emission of Refrigerant and Countermeasures

Refrigerants used in refrigerators are an important source of ozone depleting substances released into the atmosphere, and can have a significantly negative effect on the hole in the ozone layer. But most-emission of refrigerants is man-made, unreasonable and needless. Since in most emission cases the refrigerants are contained in the refrigerators, we can retrieve them by some technique that changes the ＇manual emission＇ into manual retrieving. To promote the retrieval action and diminish the pollution, society can use economic, administrative and technical countermeasures, which can create a ＇good-cycle＇ both ＇harnessing pollution and earning income simultaneously＇, reinforce the motive of retrieving, and retrieve most proportion of refrigerants used by＇all refrigerators. This ＇good-cycle＇ method can be easily promoted, and also a valuable way to promote other forms of environmental protection. The three countermeasures have almost no social cost, even no cost at all.     

Cost-Effective Control of Ground-Level Ozone Pollution in and around Beijing

Abstract

Ground level ozone pollution has become a significant air pollution problem in Beijing. Because of the complex way in which ozone is formed, it is difficult for policy makers to identify optimal control options on a cost-effective basis. This paper identifies and assesses a range of options for addressing this problem. We apply the Ambient Least Cost Model and compare the economic costs of control options, then recommend the most effective sequence to realize pollution control at the lowest cost. The study finds that installing of Stage II gasoline vapor recovery system at Beijing’s 1446 gasoline stations would be the most cost-effective option. Overall, options to reduce ozone pollution by cutting vehicular emissions are much more cost-effective than options to “clean up” coal-fired power plants.     

Cost-Effective Control of Ground-Level Ozone Pollution in and around Beijing

Ground level ozone pollution has become a significant air pollution problem in Beijing. Because of the complex way in which ozone is formed, it is difficult for policy makers to identify optimal control options on a cost-effective basis. This paper identi-fies and assesses a range of options for addressing this problem. We apply the Ambient Least Cost Model and compare the eco-nomic costs of control options, then recommend the most effective sequence to realize pollution control at the lowest cost. The study finds that installing of Stage II gasoline vapor recovery system at Beijing’s 1446 gasoline stations would be the most cost-effective option. Overall, options to reduce ozone pollution by cutting ve-hicular emissions are much more cost-effective than options to "clean up" coal-fired power plants.     

区域差异对排污税费政策的影响分析及对策研究

随着我国进入新的发展阶段,特别是开始探索新的区域协调发展战略和加快推进形成全国主体功能区规划,区域差异性对我国的排污税费政策的影响会越来越明显,这将逐渐成为其环境规制效率提升的重要障碍之一。为了减小甚至消除这种区域差异性对排污税费政策的影响,本文从区域性这个角度出发,以排污税费标准的制定为切入点,以最优排污税费理论模型为基础,利用比较分析法,指出区域差异对我国现行的排污收费制度的消极影响是存在的这一客观事实,并对不同行政主体主导制定的税费标准的差异进行了分析。在此基础上,提出了完善我国排污税费政策的相关对策。指出排污税费标准不能高度统一,应研究探索区域划分机制,结合区域特征推行差别排污税费标准,以实现环境资源的充分利用和污染社会总成本的最小化;要建立动态的排污税费标准评估与调整机制,灵活地、适时地调整排污税费标准;同时,建立区域性的多主体协调机制,防范污染的区际转移,提高政策的有效性。     

Industrialization,Environment and Health: the Impacts of Industrial SO2 Emission on Public Health in China

Abstract

In this paper, we construct a model in which the impact of pollution on health is exerted through both direct and indirect channels. The indirect channel is captured by a production function in which the principal health-improving factor, income growth, can be realized only in the cost of pollution increase. This model is then tested by the aggregated chronicle disease data in over 78 Chinese counties. Our results show, after attaining the threshold of 8 μg/m², continuous increase in industrial SO₂ emission density will lead the ratio of population suffering chronicle diseases, among which respiratory diseases occupy a significant proportion, to rise. However, owing to technological progress in pollution control activities, the needed SO₂ emission to produce one unit of GDP diminishes with time. Therefore, the negative effect from pollution augmentation on public health seems to be recompensed more and more by the positive effect of economic growth.     

排污权交易条件下古诺市场动态系统的均衡及复杂性研究

目前国内外关于排污权交易方面的研究很多,但是大多数学者在排污权交易的理论研究和实践讨论中忽略了排污权交易对产品市场结构的影响问题.实际上,在中国市场体制并不完善的条件下实施排污权交易制度,有可能导致排污权交易市场以及产品市场的扭曲,必须对此加以研究.文章建立了排污权交易条件下的古诺离散动态系统模型,分析了排污权交易条件下古诺市场动态均衡及其稳定性问题.理论研究和数值模拟的结果表明:当排污权交易价格、厂商调整产量的相对速度、边际污染治理成本以及边际生产成本等参数发生变化时,纳什均衡点失去稳定性,经倍周期分叉后出现混沌状态.厂商调整产量的相对速度越慢,厂商的利润越稳定;厂商的边际生产成本、边际污染治理成本、污染排放系数以及排污权交易价格等参数越大,厂商要承受的风险也就越大,厂商对产量的调整余地也越小,厂商的利润相对稳定.     

环境税对高污染行业的影响研究——以湖南邵阳高COD排放行业为例

针对开征环境税对高污染行业的影响，选取湖南省邵阳市为研究区域，以COD排放为例，选择了COD排放量最多的造纸及纸制品业、农副食品加工业、化学原料和化学制品制造业，调查各行业的废水治理成本。通过调查发现行业平均治理成本差别较大，从1.55元/kg到8.11元/kg，调查时点区域排污费收费标准0.7元/kg，相比行业平均治理成本太低，就几乎不具有激励减排的功能，同时也不具备筹集环境治理资金的功能。通过分析湖南邵阳高COD排放行业征收环境税的影响发现，无论基于行业废水平均治理成本制定环境保护税税率，还是考虑边际治理成本提高的情况下制定环境保护税税率，对行业大部分企业利税影响率均小于5%。而且基于行业治理成本征税，有利于淘汰行业中高污染的落后产能，促进行业整体资源优化配置，从长远来看有利于整个行业的发展，对于推动供给侧改革，改善环境质量具有重要意义。 关键词： 环境税；影响分析；高污染行业；供给侧改革     

Economic Valuation of Health Impact of PM10 Pollution in Beijing from 2001 to 2006

Abstract

In light of the practical need for research to inform policy in Beijing, this study evaluates the economic cost of the impact of PM₁₀ pollution in Beijing from 2001 to 2006, taking health as the main impact, and mortality as the main outcome. Based on the literature review, this study adopts relatively conservative parameters as the basis for calculating the health impacts. It concludes that nearly 30% of mortality among registered residents above age 30 in Beijing can be attributed to PM₁₀ pollution, and that the economic cost equals 0.8%–1.2% of the city’s GDP over the same period. This is lower than the results of previous studies, but still high enough to warrant a commitment to solve the city’s air pollution problem.     

Atmospheric Mercury Pollution in Beijing

Abstract

The atmospheric mercury pollution in Beijing is a serious problem. Atmospheric mercury has three sources: natural emission, anthropogenic emission and previously deposited mercury reemission or recycling, composing elemental mercury, divalent mercury and particulate-phase mercury. Many studies showed that mercury in Beijing’s air was higher than the general level of mercury concentration in the atmosphere. Mercury emission sources were discussed. Industrial emissions, coal burning, vehicle exhaust emissions and waste incineration were thought to be the main sources of atmospheric mercury pollution in Beijing. And also meteorology has an effect on atmospheric mercury concentration in Beijing. Measures have been taken to control the emission of mercury into the air in recent years.     

Application of TISM and MICMAC for analysis of influential factors of sustainable development of tablet devices: a case study

Abstract

With the advancements in technology and increase in demand for eco-efficient products, manufacturers are focusing on sustainable development of products. Enticing a huge demand over the recent years, sustainable development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) products are a subject of interest for most practitioners and academicians. A number of factors are found to influence the sustainable development of ICT products. It is necessary to identify the most important factors and determine the dependencies of factors among themselves. In this regard, a case study has been conducted in the context of sustainable development of tablet devices. The most influential factors have been identified from literature and with experts input. The factor dependencies are established using Total Interpretive Structural Modelling (TISM) methodology. MICMAC analysis is used to classify the factors based on their ability to influence other factors. The output of TISM forms the input for MICMAC analysis. From the study, it was found that the factors, ‘Customer pressure’, ‘Government regulations’, ‘Competitiveness’, ‘Organization initiative’ and ‘Technological advancements’ are the most driving factors. Factors ‘Environmental impact’, ‘Energy efficiency’ and ‘Opportunities to upgrade’ were found to be dependent.     

Comparison of temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Ozone Pollution at Ground Level in the Eastern China

Abstract

Monitoring data from ozone(O₃ automatic stations in three typical cities with different climatic areas in the southern and northern parts of eastern China are used to analyze temporal and spatial characteristics of ozone pollution at ground level. The results show that ozone pollution level has distinct regional differences and the concentration in the suburbs is higher than that in the urban areas. The seasonal variation of ozone concentration in different climatic areas is greatly affected by the variation of precipitation. Ozone concentration in Shenyang and Beijing, in the temperate zone, has one perennial peak concentration, occurring in early summer, May or June. Ozone concentration in Guangzhou, in sub-tropical zone, has two peak values year round. The highest values occur in October and the secondary high value in June. The ozone season in the south is longer than that in the north. The annual average daily peak value of ozone concentrations in different climates usually occur around 3 pm. The diurnal variation range of ozone concentration declines with the increase of latitude. Ozone concentration does not elevate with the increase of traffic flow. Ozone concentration in Guangzhou has a distinct reverse relation to CO and NO_x. This complicated non-linearity indicates that the equilibrium of ozone photochemical reaction has regional differences. Exceeding the rate of Beijing's 1h ozone concentration is higher than that of Guangzhou, whereas the average 8h ozone level is lower than that of Guangzhou, indicating that areas in low latitude are more easily affected by moderate ozone concentrations and longer exposure. Thus, China should work out standards for 8h ozone concentration.     

Social cost of environmental pollution and application of counter measures through clean development mechanism: in the context of developing countries

The developing countries i.e., the non-Annex-I countries (parties to the Kyoto Protocol but not responsible to any reduction target yet) in the Kyoto Protocol whose economies are in transition are also allowed to reduce GHG emissions. Among these, the countries that have accepted the Kyoto Protocol may be benefited from CDM projects to promote sustainable development. The developed countries i.e., the Annex-I countries (that have signed the Kyoto Protocol & are responsible to have specific GHG emission reduction target) or the investing countries, in return, have privilege to purchase CER credits (in units equivalent to one tonne of CO₂ gas emission reduction) to meet the emission target as specified in the Kyoto Protocol. The key step in understanding about CDM is to grasp the concept of “baseline” and “additionality”. The “Baseline” is the emissions level that would have existed if a CDM project had not happened. The feature of an approved CDM project is that the planned reductions would not occur without the additional incentive provided by emission reduction credits; this concept is known as “Additionality”. According to environmental additionality concept, baseline emission minus project emission is equal to emissions reduction. “Investment Additionality,” ultimately rejected during negotiation of the “Marrakech Accords” and “Financial Additionality,” are the two important concepts. The concept of trading of CER matches to the idea of Pigovian tax (equal to the negative externality and which is considered one of the “traditional” means of bringing a modicum of market forces) in Economics, making pollution more costly to the polluter, as the polluters have negative cost since they save money by polluting; hence, there are supposed negative externalities associated with the market activity. Economic theory predicts that in an economy where the cost of reaching mutual agreement between parties is high and where pollution is diffuse, Pigovian tax will be an efficient way to promote the public interest and will lead to an improvement of the quality of life measured by the Genuine Progress Indicator and other human economic indicators, as well as higher gross domestic product growth. We can seek a level of pollution such that the marginal savings (MS) to one polluting unit from pollution (−MC) is equal to marginal damage (MD) from pollution over the entire population, since pollution is a public bad i.e., MS (x*) = ∑MD_i (x*) where ∑D_i (x) is the total damage. Though the responsibility of reduction in emission does not lie on the non-Annex-I countries, still effort of maintaining global emission balance can be expected equally from developed and developing countries. The responsibilities of Kyoto Protocol are (a) to reduce global GHG emissions, (b) to bring about sustainable development in the developing countries lie on above two groups since its effect on February 16, 2005. Different polluters have different costs of pollution control. The least costly way of controlling pollution from various sources that reflects different costs of pollution control making the set of environmental regulations to achieve the emission target at the lowest cost makes the regulation cost-effective. Though efficiency is not attainable for many regulations, cost-effectiveness is attainable.     

中国石油资源的资产负债表编制初探

我国境内石油行业总体呈现原油开采量上升的态势,为之付出的经济和生态成本也越来越大。开展我国境内石油资源资产负债表的编制工作对于摸清我国石油资源的家底、评估我国石油资源开采的经济—资源—环境综合成本、探讨我国石油开采战略的合理性具有重要的意义。本文首先探讨了石油资源资产负债表的编制方法和框架,构建了集"生态系统服务"、"环境污染"和"资源消耗"三位于一体的"生态负债"账户。其次,收集并整理了重要的污染物处理成本和生态系统服务的价值评估成果,构建了价值化因子数据表。最后,基于2012年数据尝试编制了目前我国的第一份石油资源资产负债表。结果显示,(1)2012年末,我国石油资源的资产总额为1.47×109万元,负债总额为9.03×107万元,所有者权益为1.38×109万元;(2)石油资源资产总额占到当年政府资产总额的14.43%,占政府资源性资产比重达31.12%;(3)石油行业的资产负债率为6.15%,负债权益比达到了6.56%;(4)"生态系统服务"构成了负债的最大比重,达到了98.16%。总的来说,我国石油开采行业整体处于"高资产、高负债、强生态压力和弱可持续性"的状态。从这份资产负债表我们可以看出,我国境内石油开采的生态成本不容忽视。随着资源的不断开发,石油开采的边际生态成本只会越来越大,因此,能指向经济和生态两方面的综合成本应该取代账面成本成为政府进行石油资源开发的决策依据之一。此外,要落实石油资源资产负债表对于生态保护的实际指导意义,我们建议应该将石油资源开采的资产负债率、负债权益比等指标纳入官员的绩效考核体系。     

Beijing Ministerial Declaration on Environment and Development

Abstract

As the main organic pollutant in municipal living waste, kitchen waste causes secondary pollution in the course of its being gathered and transported to the landfill by mixing with other refuse and by decomposition. This makes pollution prevention more difficult and raises the cost of landfill engineering. However, the amount of solid waste to be treated can be decreased and such pollution burden lessened by disposing of the solid waste in local municipal areas. The program in Beijing also shows that this works well with our situation in China and can accelerate marketization and public participation.     

我国技术变迁对环境影响的计量分析

为了促进技术变迁因素在我国环境保护中发挥更大的作用，需要分析其以往对环境的影响，为我国的技术政策提供支持。使用动态基期，用统计方法定量计算了 1994~2004年各年度技术变迁因素对我国主要空气和水污染物排放量的影响。按是否以削减污染为直接目标，可将技术变迁分为2类：(1)生产工艺的变化。这种技术变化不以污染削减为直接目标，但会影响到生产投入物的数量和种类、生产过程中污染物的产生量并因此影响到最终的污染强度和排放量。(2)污染削减技术的变化。这种技术变化以污染削减为直接目标。利用环境统计年鉴中的污染削减量数据将技术效应分解为2部分：源自污染削减技术和源自生产工艺，发现从总体上看技术变迁降低了所有污染物的排放量，其中污染削减技术对所有污染排放量的下降都起了积极作用，但伴随较大的年度变化。生产工艺变化对不同污染物的影响方向不同。可见中国目前的污染削减主要依靠“末端”污染削减技术，“过程控制型”生产工艺没有充分发挥应有作用，也反映出目前技术变迁尚未向“环境友好型”演进。因此，要促使我国技术变迁向“环境友好型”演进，特别需要促进清洁生产技术的开发和推广,在生产过程中减少污染物的产生.     

城市生活垃圾焚烧社会成本评估方法与应用——以北京市为例

中国缺乏生活垃圾管理成本核算,各类隐性补贴使生活垃圾焚烧社会成本被低估。本文将这一成本界定为社会因生活垃圾焚烧而承担的,以市场价核算的成本。基于生命周期评价(LCA)框架建立了城市生活垃圾焚烧社会成本核算方法,将该成本分为补贴项目与外部成本。前者包括固定成本、可变成本、税收减免,采用直接成本法、机会成本法、比较法计算;后者采用美国加州环保局热点分析计划建立的暴露途径分析方法,利用空气扩散模型(AERMOD)、空气扩散与风险评估工具(ADMRT)、"工资—风险"法计算二口恶英致癌健康损失。基于北京市运营的3座生活垃圾焚烧处理厂运营数据、排放参数、地形与气象参数对成本进行评估,结果表明:2015年北京市生活垃圾焚烧社会成本20.4亿元,相当于1 088.5元/t;其中,补贴项目占比30%,相当于324.5元/t,健康损失占比70%,相当于752.8元/t;垃圾处理费和电价补贴分别占补贴项目的 50.2%、20%,是焚烧厂的主要收入;生活垃圾管理"收集—转运—焚烧"全过程社会成本为42.2亿元,相当于2 253元/t,远高于40—300元/t的处理费标准。生活垃圾焚烧代价巨大但被隐蔽,又缺乏专门的危险空气污染物排放标准与健康风险评估,垃圾焚烧社会成本存在失控风险。建议:建立生活垃圾管理社会成本核算准则,实现成本显性化;明确生活垃圾管理社会成本降低目标,以强制源头分类、计量收费政策降低垃圾清运量、焚烧量;建立危险空气污染物定量风险评估制度,实施二口恶英减排。     

陆域产业结构演进对海洋环境的动态影响研究——以长江流域与东海沿岸地区为例

以往研究已经证明海洋经济发展中产生的污染对海洋环境质量的变化没有显著性影响,海洋污染物的主要来源是陆地,海洋环境与陆域经济之间存在着较为密切的关系,但关于陆域产业结构演进对海洋环境影响的研究非常少见,加深该研究对推动海洋环境改善具有重要的意义。利用VAR模型和Tapio脱钩模型,研究2001～2017年间长江流域和东海沿岸地区的产业结构高度化和产业结构合理化对东海海域的海洋环境的动态冲击,借助它们的脱钩状态证实该影响。研究结果显示:(1)陆域产业结构高度化有利于海洋环境改善,其原因包括产业间优势地位的更替和产业内部的技术创新;陆域产业结构合理化的发展存在波动性,导致它对海洋环境的影响不够显著;一部分海洋污染物可以通过海水自身的净化能力而消解,残存污染给海洋环境带来了不利影响。(2)在2002～2017年,东海的海洋环境与长江流域和东海沿岸地区的产业结构高度化、合理化分别表现为"大幅变化-稳步变化-脱钩持续"、"剧烈变化-起伏波动-脱钩持续"的脱钩变化规律,该脱钩分析结果证实了陆域产业结构演进对海洋环境的影响。     

资源型城市环境规制的经济增长效应及其传导机制——基于创新补偿与产业结构升级的双重视角

对于中国多数资源型城市来说,改善生态环境与促进经济增长是当前面临的重要任务。一些研究认为治理环境污染可能加重"遵循成本",进而不利于经济增长;也有研究认为环境规制会通过"创新补偿"效应,增进当地产品竞争力,弥补企业成本负担并促进经济增长;此外,还有研究认为环境标准提高有助于区域产业结构升级,进而带动经济增长。为验证中国资源型城市环境规制对经济增长的影响及其传导机制,本文基于2004—2014年资源型城市数据,以样本城市GDP为被解释变量,以工业污染治理设备运行费用为解释变量,进行了面板数据实证分析,并观察了科技行业人员比重和第三产业比重的中介效应。结果显示:(1)资源型城市工业污染物治理对GDP总量和人均GDP的影响均显著为正;(2)在环境规制与GDP(或人均GDP)的正向关系中,科技行业人员比重的提升起到了部分中介作用,即存在显著的创新补偿效应;(3)除了传统观点看到的创新补偿效应,污染治理对产业结构的积极影响也在二者正向关系中有重要的中介作用,而且比创新补偿效应的作用更显著。本文的结论是,资源型城市环境规制未对经济增长造成不利影响,主要是由于经济资源从效益不佳的工业企业流向了第三产业,同时工业部门自身的创新潜力也已逐步凸显。因此,面对经济社会持续发展的压力,资源型城市要取得经济增长与生态环境的双赢,应当强化污染治理成本对企业技术进步的倒逼机制,进一步实现创新驱动发展,同时要构建多元产业体系,促进资源型行业与现代服务业的有效对接和深度融合。     

“水十条”对工业水污染强度的影响及其机制

《水污染防治行动计划》(简称“水十条”)是国家为切实加大水污染防治力度,保障国家水安全而制定的法规。为检验“水十条”的政策影响效应,文章利用2012—2017年全国269个地级市的数据,结合工业化程度、对外开放水平、技术进步、人口规模、水资源禀赋等控制变量,运用双重差分法对“水十条”政策实施是否有助于减轻工业水污染强度进行研究。研究发现:我国中西部地区由于产业结构、技术水平等原因,工业水污染强度显著高于其他地区,“水十条”政策实施显著降低了中西部地区工业水污染强度。通过改变政策实施时间、剔除中心城市、增加控制变量以及剔除严重污染等方式进行重新回归,检验结果依然具有较强稳健性。进一步分析中,文章研究了产业结构以及技术创新的作用机制,发现第一产业比重显著降低,而第三产业显著提升,产业结构得到优化,并且技术创新效应显著加强。结果表明,产业结构升级以及技术创新均为“水十条”政策改善工业水污染强度的有效途径。在空间异质性方面,在环境规制强度较高的地区“水十条”政策对工业水污染强度的影响相对较小;而在环境规制强度较低地区却呈现出较强的抑制作用,主要原因在于环境规制强度高的地区水污染情况原本较好,因此污染强度降低幅度较小。因此,文章认为“水十条”政策能够显著改善工业水污染强度,并且加上环境规制、技术创新以及产业结构优化等手段的辅助能够更好地发挥政策效果。文章的发现为中国水污染防治行动提供了有益的政策启示。     

碳排放权交易机制能否兼顾企业效益与绿色效率?

基于碳减排治理全球变暖的碳排放权交易机制,探讨了碳交易能否兼顾企业效益与绿色效率,及企业减碳优化策略。通过匹配2006—2017年中国上市公司及所在地区数据,首先运用双重差分方法,总体衡量碳交易对企业要素投入产出及全要素生产率的影响。然后运用平行趋势、滞后两期、工具变量及安慰剂,检验碳交易双效模型的稳健性,并利用三重差分检验是否存在因企业性质不同而造成差异化影响。最后运用中介与调节效应方法,检验碳交易与全要素生产率的中介效应,并考察了绿色创新、市场化与政府补贴影响下有调节的中介作用。实证结果显示:碳交易对绿色全要素生产率、企业全要素生产率均有显著负向影响。碳交易促进碳减排,导致营业成本增加、劳动生产率降低,但同时也显著正向影响资本生产率,促进企业利润与收入增长。绿色全要素生产率在绿色创新、市场化和政府补贴显著的调节影响下,对碳交易与企业全要素生产率的关系起到部分中介作用。研究表明,碳交易在一定条件下能够实现绿色效率和企业效益双赢,碳交易的作用在于依次实现碳减排、企业全要素生产率提升和绿色全要素生产率提升,而绿色效率和企业效益协同尚处于“遵循成本”阶段。因此,要建立一套集市场化、政府奖惩和绿色创新为核心的碳交易体系,进一步健全绿色低碳的激励约束机制,加强绿色创新补偿,增强企业自主研发和协同创新能力,提升绿色技术转化率,优化绿色产业结构,完善配套环保标准和管理规范,诱导企业完成“创新补偿”的蜕变。