氡的空气污染及其对人体健康的危害

氡是空气中常见的放射性元素,其对人体健康有强的危害作用,人体主要从室内空气中吸入氡及其子体。流行病学资料及动物实验结果表明,氡及其子体可以引起肺癌及其它疾病。本文从氡的来源、环境分布、空气中氡浓度的影响因素、氡及其子体对人体健康的危害及降低室内空气中氡浓度的措施等方面进行了较为系统的综述。     

空气中氡及其子体对人体健康的影响

自从发现铀矿开采工人肺癌发病率与井下空气中氡及子体浓度存在一定的线性关系以后,氡及子体对人体健康的影响愈来愈引起人们的关注。国际上有些辐射防护机构为此进行了大量的调查工作,并对产生高浓度氡及子体的工作场所制订了相应的限制标准和防护措施。但是,在一般环境里,室内外空气中也存在着氡及其子体,对人体所产生的辐射剂量约占整个天然辐射剂的一半。为了解室内外空气中氡及子体对人体产生的影响,近年来我国和国外都相继开展不同规格的调查,并公布了调查数据。本文利用已公布的一些数据,介绍其对人体健康的影响。 1 氡及其子体 1.1 气态放射性核素氡—222、氡—220、氡—219 自然界存在3个天然放射性系列,铀系(u)、钍系(Th)和锕系(Acu)。在其衰变过程中,都会产生气态放     

我国不同类型地下工程中的氡水平

为了解我国地下工程内氡的浓度水平及其可能对人体产生的危害,采用核固体径迹法,在不同季节对全国23个城市的234个地下工程测点的氡浓度进行了测量。根据工程的建筑类型及用途的不同,将所有被测工程分为坑道、干道(包括掘进式地道工程)、地下室(高层建筑地下室和掘开式工程)和停车场四类,各类工程的氡浓度平均值分别为327、619、96.9、59.1 Bq.m-3。对于不同山体岩性的坑道,氡浓度值由高到低的顺序是花岗岩>凝灰岩>石英砂岩>石灰岩>安山玢岩。比较各类工程不同季节的氡浓度,得出,停车场氡浓度季节变化不大,其它三类工程都有氡浓度夏季明显高于冬季的特点,而且通风差的未使用的坑道和干道比使用中的同类工程具有相对高的氡浓度夏/冬比值。     

高层建筑、地下工程、天然溶洞内放射性水平及卫生学评价

本文报道了高层建筑、地下工程、天然溶洞内放射性水平。γ外照射在正常天然辐射水平范围。其年剂量仅为国家对公众成员规定标准值的1/6～1/8;氡和氡子体超过国家标准规定浓度限值的1倍～1个量级。对其危害估计预期肺癌发生数比地面对照点高2.8～4.7倍。但是,改善通风条件降低氡和氡子体浓度,可减少危害程度。因而,地下工程、天然溶洞内通风状况至关重要。     

居室中的杀手—氡

随着环境污染的日益严重以及人们环境保护意识的增强，过去被忽视的居室环境中的放射性氡危害已逐渐引起人们的重视。氡是一种天然放射性气体元素，会对人体产生一系列的辐射效应。人体长期处于含氡环境，吸入含氡气量高的空气或饮用含氡量高的水，其中７０％的氡可沉积在肺部，氡及其子体产物可长期滞留于肺部而导致肺癌的发生。调查表明，肺癌的发病率与空气氡浓度有线性关系。此外，白血病、皮肤癌以及出现在儿童中的某些癌症也与氡的照射密切相关。氡的地球化学性质及危害１８９９年，R．B．Owens和E．Rutherford在研究钍的放射性时，…     

空气中氡浓度的测量及不确定度分析

本文总结了空气中氡浓度的测量方法及注意事项、控制标准,重点结合本单位的RAD7测氡仪对空气中氡浓度测量的不确定度进行了分析及计算,最后指出该测氡仪达到GB50325-2001中对空气中氡检测方法的测量不确定度的要求.     

广东省下庄和南雄铀矿区周围大气环境氡浓度调查

对广东省下庄和南雄两个铀矿区的大气氡环境地球化学进行了研究．矿区废渣和坑道口释放出来的氡气对周围大气形成了氡污染,特别是在矿区周围1～2km范围内的污染严重．但是空气中的氡污染随着离矿区的距离增大而迅速减弱．矿区周围居民室内氡的浓度高,是广东省室内氡浓度平均值的7～8倍左右．在进行调查的29个居室中,有9个（31％）居室内氡浓度超过美国环境保护局制定的0.15Bq/L室内氡浓度的上限值．居室中氡浓度的升高,除了受矿区释放出来的氡污染外,还因为本地区属高本底辐射区,房基下的土壤、岩石和建筑材料中的铀、镭等放射性元素的含量高,其放射性衰变产生的氡释放出来进入室内．     

华南东部主要铀矿区居民室内外氡浓度研究

对华南东部6个铀矿区居民室内外空气氡浓度及其变化规律进行了研究。矿区废渣和坑道口释放出来的氡气对周围大气形成了氡污染,特别是在矿区周围0.5～1.5 km的范围内的污染严重。但是空气中的这种氡污染随离矿区的距离增大而迅速减弱。矿区周围居民室内氡的浓度高,是广东省室内氡浓度平均值的10倍左右。在进行调查的190个居室中,有45个(23%)居室室内氡浓度超过美国环境保护局制定的148 Bq/m3室内氡浓度的上限值。居室中氡浓度的升高,除了受矿区释放出来的氡污染外,更主要是因本地区属高本底辐射区,房基下的土壤、岩石和建筑材料中的铀、镭等放射性元素的含量高,其放射性衰变产生的氡释放出来进入室内。      

雨后短时间环境地表γ剂量率数值变化研究

雨后数小时内近地表x-γ空气吸收剂量率数值将显著上升,持续一段时间之后,近地表x-γ空气吸收剂量率数值再次恢复为通常水平,为探明成因,通过大气氡分布理论得出氡子体沉降模型,利用该模型和γ场理论计算出近地表x-γ空气吸收剂量率数值上升区间,与近年杭州某辐射环境自动站x-γ空气吸收剂量率连续监测系统的实测历史数据比较,证明γ场理论和氡子体沉降模型对雨后短时间环境地表γ剂量率数值上升具有较好的理论解释和预测,并对辐射自动站选址和环境地表γ剂量率监测提供指导意义.     

闽北570铀矿区周围大气环境氡浓度水平研究

对闽北570铀矿区的大气氡环境地球化学进行了研究。矿区废渣和坑道口释放出来的氡气对周围大气形成了一定的氡污染,特别是在矿区周围0.5～1km范围内的污染较严重。但是空气中的氡污染随着离矿区的距离增大而迅速减弱,矿区周围居民室内氡的浓度较高,是福建省室内氡浓度平均值的1～8倍左右。在进行调查的28个居室中,有6个(占21%)居室内氡浓度超过我国住房内氡浓度控制标准GB/T16146-1995中已建住房的室内氡浓度上限值(200Bq/m3)和国际辐射防护委员会制定的200Bq/m3的上限值。居室中氡浓度的升高,除了受矿区释放出来的氡污染外,还因为本地区属高本底辐射区,房基下的土壤、岩石和建筑材料中的铀、镭等放射性元素的含量高,其放射性衰变产生的氡释放出来进入室内。     

贵阳地铁1号线氡浓度特征及其潜在健康效应评估

地铁轨道交通逐渐成为人们日常出行的首选,但作为较封闭的地下空间环境易导致氡积聚,对于工作人员和乘客存在潜在的电离辐射暴露风险,有必要进行监测评估.贵阳地铁1号线于2018年12月开通运营,所穿越地层主要为碳酸盐岩,该地层风化过程中常常产生氡异常,尤需引起关注.本研究利用RAD-7电子测氡仪,分别于2020年7月29日和...     

Transport and deposition of indoor radon decay products—II. Influence of environmental conditions

The effects of indoor radon decay product behavior on overall concentrations have generally been characterized using uniformly-mixed models, mathematical formulations based on steady-state macroscopic mass-balances, assuming uniform concentrations within the enclosure. The uniformly-mixed model parameterizes the deposition process as a constant volumetric removal rate, given different values for the free and attached progeny. The model requires prior knowledge of the deposition rates, and assumes them to be constant, independent of environmental conditions, and identical for all decay products. There has generally been little agreement regarding the actual values of the deposition rates, and the uncertainty in these required values presents an important limitation.In response to the limitations of existing mass-balance models, an indoor radon mass-transport model, RADTRAN, was developed using a microscopic mass-balance. Deposition by molecular diffusion is accounted for through boundary conditions, and deposition velocity is calculated based on the concentration distribution near the wall. Parametric sensitivity studies using RADTRAN examined the sensitivity of the deposition of radon decay products to several factors: the size of the free progeny (measured by its diffusivity, D^f), particle concentration (using the attachment rate, X), and air motion. Deposition is described in terms of the deposition velocities of the free and attached progeny, u^f and u^a. The development of RADTRAN is described in a companion paper. This paper presents the results of the parametric sensitivity studies examining the influence of environmental conditions on radon progeny deposition. Results primarily focus on the influence on the free mode of the first radon decay product, ²¹⁸Po. RADTRAN is also used to examine the variations of deposition velocity between the decay products.     

室内氡浓度与建筑材料表面氡析出率的关系研究

采用RAD7测氡仪对某8层教学楼第5层的房间进行24 h连续测定,测得室内氡浓度范围为5.65~48.7 Bq/m3,不超标。测定结果表明,清晨氡浓度较高,在5:00左右氡浓度达最高值;中午氡浓度较低,11:00左右氡浓度达最低值。经测定房间内墙面抛光瓷砖的表面氡析出率大于地板砖的表面氡析出率。房间室内的氡主要来源于建筑材料表面氡的析出和室外空气,利用氡析出率和室外氡计算的室内氡浓度与测定结果相符。     

Transport and deposition of indoor radon decay products—I. Model development and validation

Commonly used mathematical models of indoor radon decay product behavior are based on macroscopic mass-balances, often referred to as ‘uniformly-mixed models’. The uniformly-mixed model's applicability is limited by its inability to track the movement of pollutants from their sources to other areas within the enclosure, to permit spatial- or time-dependent sources, or to take proper account of interactions with macroscopic surfaces. Although the uniformly-mixed model parameterizes the deposition process as a constant volumetric removal rate, in reality the deposition process is actually a surface phenomenon and is strongly affected by environmental conditions.This paper describes the development of RADTRAN, a two-dimensional radon progeny transport model that begins with the differential conservation equations describing the motion of air and the transport of reactive pollutants, introduces appropriate boundary conditions to represent surface deposition, and then calculates the concentration distribution of radon progeny throughout the entire region of interest. Knowing the concentration gradient near the surface, a local mass-transfer coefficient (the deposition velocity) can be determined as a function of environmental conditions. RADTRAN simulations have been based on several flow conditions: buoyancy-driven recirculating enclosure flows, free and forced-convection boundary layer flows, and one-dimensional diffusion. Free progeny diffusivity, D^f, and attachment rate, X, were varied over representative ranges. For these conditions, RADTRAN calculated free deposition velocities of u^f = 0.014–0.079 cm s⁻¹, for ²¹⁸Po. RADTRAN predictions are compared to a range of experimental measurements. It was found that the predicted range of deposition velocities is in rough agreement with findings from experiments conducted in flow conditions similar to the simplified flows used in RADTRAN.     

Radon at the Mauna Loa observatory: Transport from distant continents

Continuous measurements of radon have been made at an altitude of 3400 m at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. Concentrations ranged from about 20 to more than 700 mBq m⁻³. These were similar to values at remote Macquarie I., some 2000 km south of Australia in the Southern Ocean. At Mauna Loa, the radon concentrations could usually be separated into free tropospheric and island influenced categories on the basis of local meteorological observations. On one occasion a long range transport event from Asia brought relatively high radon concentrations to Mauna Loa and persisted for several days. The Asian origin of this event was supported by wind trajectories. This measurement program demonstrates the value of radon data in evaluating air transport models and the influence of transport from distant continents on baseline atmospheric measurements.     

微生物燃料电池电活化过硫酸盐降解甲基橙偶氮染料

为研究MFC（微生物燃料电池）产生电能活化PDS（过硫酸盐）对偶氮染料的降解能力,以MO（甲基橙）为目标污染物,探讨pH、c（PDS）、初始c（MO）、无机阴离子等对MO降解的影响及降解机理.结果表明:①当pH为3~5时,MO降解率随pH降低而升高;当pH低于3时,MO降解率随pH的降低而降低;MO降解率随初始c（MO）的增大而降低.当c（PDS）为1~2 mmol/L时,MO降解率随c（PDS）增加而增大;当c（PDS）超过2 mmol/L后呈减小趋势.②最佳反应条件[pH为3、初始c（MO）为0.10 mmol/L、c（PDS）为2 mmol/L]下,反应4 h后MO降解率可达86.5%.③无机阴离子HCO₃-、NO₃-、CO₃2-对MO降解存在抑制作用,当阴离子投加量为10 mmol/L时,降解率分别为64.2%、68.8%、76.1%,而Cl-对MO降解无显著影响.④淬灭试验表明,体系的主要活性物质为SO₄-·及少量·OH.⑤通过紫外-可见光谱扫描,依据MO结构与特征吸收峰的关系,推测MO降解途径,即MO发色基团偶氮双键断裂,生成含苯环类中间产物,最终矿化为CO₂和H₂O.研究显示,MFC能有效活化PDS产生SO₄-·,对偶氮染料有较好的降解和矿化效果.      

Unusually high indoor radon concentrations

Measurements of indoor radon concentrations in the village Umhausen (2600 inhabitants, Ötztal valley, Tyrol, Austria) revealed unusually high indoor radon concentrations up to 274,000 Bq m⁻³. The medians measured on the basements were 3750 Bq m⁻³ in winter and 361 Bq m⁻³ in summer, those on the ground floors were 1180 Bq m⁻³ and 210 Bq m⁻³, respectively. Seventy-one per cent of the houses showed basement radon concentrations above the Austrian action level of 400 Bq m⁻³ in winter, 33% in summer. There are indications that the high radon concentrations are due to a giant rock slide about 8700 years ago. The unusually high radon concentrations in Umhausen coincide with a statistically significant increase in lung cancer mortality. For the period 1970–1991 the age and sex standardized mortality rate is 3.85 (95% confidence interval: 2.9 to 5.1). The control population is the total population of Tyrol (630,000 inhabitants).     

新型填充式空气净化器净化甲醛效果与计算模拟

针对室内空气低浓度甲醛污染,设计填充附着纳米二氧化钛玻璃珠(3 mm)空气净化器,并在密闭房间内对其净化效果进行实验分析.结果表明,甲醛仞始浓度为0.727～1.815 mg/m3时,甲醛减少87.0%～93.8%,并建立了该空气净化器的反应速率方程.通过计算模拟,证实了净化器单个装置空气分布的均匀性.此外,还根据质量平衡建立了有甲醛持续释放污染房间内应用空气净化器后,甲醛浓度变化的数学模型,并通过实验验证了模拟结果的正确性.结果表明,间歇性应用此空气净化器可维持室内甲醛浓度低于国家空气质量标准0.1 mg/m3.     

北京城郊燃煤汞排放及其对当地空气环境的影响

为了解生活用煤汞含量水平,分析生活燃煤给当地环境空气中ρ(Hg)带来的影响,使用Lumex RA915+/M测汞仪,现场在线监测了北京市大兴区46户居民家庭燃煤炉口上方空气和村庄环境空气中的ρ(Hg),并对民用蜂窝煤及煤渣样品中的w(Hg)进行了实验室分析. 结果表明:燃煤炉口上方25 cm处空气中ρ(Hg)为20.4~4 583.5 ng/m3,平均值为823.9 ng/m3(n=46);村庄环境空气中ρ(Hg)为5~13 ng/m3,高于当地背景值(1~3 ng/m3);民用蜂窝煤样品中w(Hg)的平均值为326.6 ng/g(n=46),显著高于我国工业原煤中w(Hg)平均值(约150 ng/g);生活燃煤汞排放率达到99.76%,高于电厂等工业燃煤汞排放率. 鉴于生活用煤多为富汞的劣质煤,其w(Hg)及汞排放率远高于工业用煤,并且室内空气污染对人体健康的危害更为直接,因此,生活燃煤造成的汞污染问题应得到更大的重视.      

Micro-flood (MF) technology for sustainable manufacturing operations that are coolant less and occupationally friendly

This paper presents a new technology for minimizing the use of metalworking fluids (MWFs) during the machining process that is atomization-less and occupational friendly. Micro-flood (MF) technology utilizes direct contact between the cutting tool and the MWF without the interaction of a gas medium. Experiments were conducted in high volume mass production environment turning HSLA (high strength low alloy) SAE 070Y steel. Machining performance and total air mass particulates were investigated in dry machining, Near dry machining (NDM) via atomized spray mist and MF technology. Open-atmosphere air monitoring indicated that total mass particulates behaved in an almost linear fashion with respect to gas atomization pressure, whereas the MWF flow rate demonstrated logarithmic trends in NDM applications using an atomized spray. Nozzle orientations directed upward into the air also produced higher mg/m³ concentrations (such as flank) than chip and rake face orientations that were directed down. Greater separation existed at higher gas atomization pressures, MWF flow rates and by changing the MWF type. At extreme limits, nozzle orientation affected mg/m³ concentration as much as 4–5 mg/m³ for water-miscible MWFs and 15–22 mg/m³ for non-water-miscible MWFs. Tool-life performance varied greatly among MWF type and flow rate, and in all cases MF technology performed better than NDM using an atomized spray mist. Direct and consistent MWF penetration to cutting zone using MF technology lowered tool-wear on the average of 12–75% compared to NDM at the same MWF flow rate. Compared to dry machining, NDM improved tool-wear on the average by 20–243%. In one case, tool-wear performance was improved by 616% at 0.15 mm using MF technology compared to dry machining at a nominal 0.925 mm tool-wear. Overall, a large mass reduction of particulates can be achieved employing MF technology that would have been unrealistic for an open-atmosphere machining environment employing an atomized spray mist. On the average, MF technology can maintain a total air mass particulate of less than 0.4 mg/m³ in the occupational work zone using MWF flow rates up to 1260 ml/h, regardless of the MWF classification. Atomized spray mist applications are capable meeting the 5 mg/m³ OSHA limit if MWF flow rates are less than 160 ml/h, air pressures are less than 0.137 MPa (20 psi) using water-miscible MWFs and air pressures are less than 0.0344 MPa (5 psi) using non-water-miscible MWFs.