Ecological and economic impacts of different irrigation and fertilization practices: case study of a watershed in the southern Iran

Best management practices, such as conservation tillage, the optimum level of irrigation, fertilization, are frequently used to reduce non-point source pollution from agricultural land and improve water quality. In this study, we used the soil and water assessment tool to model the impacts of different irrigation (adjusted to crop need), cropping and fertilization practices on total nitrogen loss. The economic impacts of these practices on crop net farm income were also evaluated. For this purpose, the model was calibrated through comparing model outputs with observations to ensure reliable hydrologic, crop yield and nitrate leaching simulations. The results showed that by reducing water or fertilizer or combination of both, we can reduce nitrate leaching. For wheat and corn, the best scenario was S1n1 (combination between reduction by 10 % of water and nitrogen fertilizer application, simultaneously) and S2n3 (combination of 20 and 30 % reduction in water and fertilizer application), respectively. These scenarios are both ecologically and economically desirable. Also, decreasing nitrogen fertilization by 50 % for corn would decrease the nitrate pollution from 101.1 to 32.3 kg N ha^?1; therefore, this strategy is ecologically desirable but economically unsound. So, there are opportunities for environmental decision makers to encourage farmers to implement these strategies. Also, since the nitrogen leaching cannot decrease without a reduction in net farm income for crops such as corn; hence, the losses of farmers should be compensated.     

Post-irrigation impact of domestic sewage effluent on composition of soils,crops and ground water--a case study

Long-term irrigation with sewage water adds large amounts of carbon, major and micro- nutrients to the soil. We compared the spatial distribution of N, P, K and other micronutrients and toxic elements in the top 0.6 m of an alluvial soil along with their associated effects on the composition of crops and ground waters after about three decades of irrigation with domestic sewage effluent as a function of distance from the disposal point. Use of sewage for irrigation in various proportions improved the organic matter to 1.24-1.78% and fertility status of soils especially down to a distance of 1 km along the disposal channel. Build up in total N was up to 2908 kg ha(-1), available P (58 kg ha(-1)), total P (2115 kg ha(-1)), available K (305 kg ha(-1)) and total K (4712 kg ha(-1)) in surface 0.15 m soil. Vertical distribution of these parameters also varied, with most accumulations occurring in surface 0.3 m. Traces of NO3-N (up to 2.8 mg l(-1)), Pb (up to 0.35 mg l(-1)) and Mn (up to 0.23 mg l(-1)) could also be observed in well waters near the disposal point thus indicating initiation of ground water contamination. However, the contents of heavy metals in crops sampled from the area were below the permissible critical levels. Though the study confirms that the domestic sewage can effectively increase water resource for irrigation but there is a need for continuous monitoring of the concentrations of potentially toxic elements in soil, plants and ground water.     

基于Hydrus-1D模型的太湖流域农田系统水分渗漏和氮磷淋失特征分析

在土壤水分长期定位观测基础上,应用Hydrus-1D模型对太湖流域典型稻麦轮作农田土壤水分渗漏进行动态模拟,并结合深层土壤溶液取样及氮磷浓度测定,分析了当前耕作方式下农田水分渗漏和氮磷淋失特征。结果表明,土壤水渗漏与降雨、灌溉及前期土壤含水率有关;麦季深层渗漏量小但持续时间长,而稻季单次渗漏量大却持续时间短。模拟时段内铵态氮和可溶解性总磷的淋失主要发生在稻季,淋失量分别为2.62、0.49 kg/hm²,分别占稻麦轮作期总淋失量的96.0%、96.0%,而硝态氮淋失主要发生在麦季,淋失量为57.97 kg/hm²,占总淋失量的80.2%;无机氮淋失的主要形态为硝态氮,其淋失量占总淋失量的96.4%。综合看来,硝态氮应作为主要阻控对象,以减少农田面源污染对地下水及太湖水体的污染风险。此外,氮磷淋失在6、7月份即休耕期和水稻生长早期容易达到峰值,应得到重视。     

三峡库区消落带农用坡地氮素流失特征及其环境效应

三峡库区消落带坡地的自发农用较为常见,消落带的这种利用方式可能加剧养分流失并对库区水环境造成影响.通过对库区2011～2013年3个落干期消落带农用坡地的地表径流、壤中流中氮素形态与浓度进行定位监测,研究消落带农用坡地氮素流失特征及其环境效应.结果表明:常规施肥下,消落带农用坡地侵蚀模数为1 443 kg/(hm2·a),落干期内坡地平均径流量为230 mm,径流系数为0.58,其中壤中流流量占总径流量的77％.历次降雨产流事件中常规施肥处理时,地表径流、壤中流中TN平均浓度分别是4.85±0.85、20.73±2.05 mg/L,落干期地表径流(泥沙)和壤中流的TN流失量分别为6.63± 1.19、35.22±3.38 kg/hm2,分别占当季施肥量的2.2％、11.7％.可见,随壤中流流失是三峡库区消落带农用坡地氮素流失的主要途径.与常规施肥处理相比,减量施肥处理使地表径流(泥沙)、壤中流TN流失通量分别显著降低了25％、48％,表明减少氮肥用量可以显著降低消落带农用带来的环境风险,建议消落带农用地氮肥进行减量施肥,使其既不影响作物产量,也显著降低氮流失.     

Long-term simulation of effects of energy crop cultivation on nitrogen leaching and surface water quality in Saxony/Germany

The production of energy crops in Germany is a growing agronomic sector and is expected to occupy a substantial share of farmland in the near future. At the same time, there are concerns that energy crops might cause increased nitrogen pollution of soil water, surface water and groundwater. Therefore, the Federal State of Saxony, Germany, funded a study on potential effects of an intensified cultivation of energy crops. In frame of this study, we used the Web GIS-based model STOFFBILANZ to simulate N leaching from the rooting zone and N loads of surface water for a reference scenario and an energy crop scenario. For the reference scenario, we used data representing the crop cultivation for the year 2005 at municipality level. We found that the total loads for N leaching from the rooting zone of cropland are highest for the loess region (8,067 t year^?1), followed by mountainous region (6,797 t year^?1) and lowland (5,443 t year^?1). However, highest N fluxes in the leachate from rooting zones have been simulated for lowland (40.6 kg ha^?1 year^?1) and mountainous region (37.1 kg ha^?1 year^?1), while nitrate concentrations of leachate were highest for the lowland (101.8 mg l^?1). In terms of diffuse N input into surface water, the mountainous region is the most important source area (total N load 6,380 t year^?1, flux 34.6 kg ha^?1 year^?1). Retention by in-stream processes accounts for 15 % (3,784 t year^?1) of the total N load leaving the study area (25,136 t year^?1). In the 2020 energy crop scenario, shares of rape and silage maize (id., ensiled corn) were limited for each municipality to a maximum of 25 and 33 %, respectively. The conversion of grasslands to crop farming was not allowed. Under these conditions, we found slight to substantial reductions of nitrogen loads for leachate from the rooting zone and for surface waters. The simulated reduction depends strongly on local conditions. Only small reductions (ca. 4–8 %) were found for the lowlands and mountainous regions of Saxony, while reductions for the loess region were substantial (ca. 22 %). A major outcome of our study is that the cultivation of energy crops might reduce N loss if certain preconditions are assumed, for example, without conversion of grasslands to crop farming. However, effects might vary widely depending on local conditions.     

丰水期鄱阳湖氮磷含量变化及来源分析

通过系统测定丰水期鄱阳湖湖水、主要支流水、长江水及部分农田水、地下水及城市污水的氮磷含量,对其氮磷含量变化及来源进行了分析,结果表明,鄱阳湖水体中主要的氮素形式是硝酸盐氮（090 mg/L）,赣江是其主要贡献者。鄱阳湖五大支流氮磷含量存在着较大的差异,赣江NO-3 N含量明显高于鄱阳湖其它主干流,而NH+4 N和TN含量以饶河的最高,TP以信江的最高。农田水、城市废水以及地下水含有较高的氮磷含量,是鄱阳湖及其五大支流氮磷的主要来源。农田水TN和TP含量最高,分别为1347、2863 mg/L。高含量的NO-3 N（735 mg/L）和NH+4 N（548 mg/L）分别出现在地下水和城市污水中。鄱阳湖水体氮负荷较大,N/P比值远大于7〖DK〗∶1。受滞留区及赣江和修水补给的影响,鄱阳湖主河道氮含量变化从上游至下游呈总体上升趋势。鄱阳湖湖体氮含量以下游最高,滞留区次之,上游主河道最低,TP含量呈相反的趋势变化。底层沉积有机物的降解和扰动导致鄱阳湖水体底层NO-3 N、NH+4 N、TN、TP的含量高于表层。     

基于GIS的鄱阳湖流域非点源吸附态污染物时空变化研究

鄱阳湖作为中国最大的淡水湖,国际重要湿地,其生态环境保护与可持续发展意义重大。基于GIS技术,以鄱阳湖流域为研究区域,利用3个时期多源数据,首先运用土壤流失方程估算鄱阳湖流域土壤侵蚀量,计算土壤侵蚀模数,然后根据泥沙输移比估算水体的泥沙负荷,最后采用颗粒态氮磷营养盐迁移经验模型定量研究鄱阳湖流域非点源吸附态污染物N、P负荷的时空变化规律。结果显示:吸附态氮磷污染负荷在空间分布上呈现出四周高、中间低的特点,相对较高的区域位于流域中、上游,这主要由于该区域多为山地陡坡;相对略低的区域位于流域的下游地区,这主要因为该区域平原和丘陵交错分布,土壤侵蚀强度较低。时间变化上,全流域单位面积N、P吸附态污染物负荷大都呈现先增加后减少的趋势,同时减少的幅度较增加的幅度大。     

Ecological characteristics of Alhagi sparsifolia Shap. seedling roots under different irrigation treatments

An trench profile method was used to study seasonal variation of root ecological characteristics of Alhagi sparsifolia Shap. seedlings under different irrigation treatments. The results indicated the following: (1) Root morphology: under excellent soil moisture conditions, A. sparsifolia seedlings developed many horizontal roots and root sprouts to compete for light; but under poor soil moisture, the vertical root system expanded its resource space into deeper soil. Plasticity of root morphology is an important strategy to capture water and adapt to the hyperarid environment. (2) Root/shoot ratio: root/shoot ratio increased with declining soil moisture, and this trend was more obvious later in the growing season. Increase of root/shoot ratio is a strategy for adapting to drought. (3) Growth of root system: The seedlings prefer to develop roots in shallower surface layers with less water availability. The growth depth and vertical growth rate of roots increased with decreased soil moisture. (4) Accumulation of root biomass: biomass and surface area of the root system decreased with increased soil depth, with the roots distributed in an ??inverted pyramid?? in vertical section view. The formation of root biomass conformed to a logistic ??slow-quick-slow?? growth curve, and total biomass decreased with intensity of soil drought. The findings will provide data useful for effective restoration of A. sparsifolia and better utilization of water resources in hyperarid regions.     

Spatial variability of shallow groundwater level, electrical conductivity and nitrate concentration, and risk assessment of nitrate contamination in North China Plain

In recent years, nitrate (NO3) contamination of groundwater has become a growing concern for people in rural areas in North China Plain (NCP) where groundwater is used as drinking water. The objective of this study was to evaluate groundwater resource level, to determine groundwater quality and to assess the risk of NO3 pollution in groundwater in Quzhou County in the NCP. Ordinary Kriging (OK) method was used to analyze the spatial variability of shallow groundwater level, groundwater electrical conductivity (EC) and NO3-N concentrations, and Indictor Kriging (IK) method was used to analyze the data with NO3-N concentrations equal or greater than the groundwater NO3 pollution threshold (20 mg L(-1)). The results indicated that groundwater level averaged 9.81 m, a level 6 m lower than in 1990. The spatial correlation distances for groundwater level, EC and NO3-N concentration were 21.93, 2.19 and 3.55 km, respectively. The contour map showed that shallow groundwater level areas extended from north to south across the County. Groundwater EC was above 3 dS m(-1) in the most part of the northern county. Groundwater NO3 pollution (NO3-N> or =20 mg L(-1)) mainly occurred in the County Seat areas due to wastewater irrigation and excessive fertilizer leaching from agricultural fields. At Henantuang town, besides suburban of the County Seat, groundwater was also contaminated by NO3 shown by the map generated using the IK method, which was not reflected in the map generated using the OK method. The map generated using the OK method could not reflect correctly the groundwater NO3 pollution status. The IK method is useful to assess the risk of NO3 pollution by giving the conditional probability of NO3 concentration exceeding the threshold value. It is suggested that risk assessment of NO3 pollution is useful for better managing groundwater resource, preventing soil salinization and minimizing NO3 pollution in groundwater.     

垃圾填埋场覆盖层灌溉处理渗滤液的试验研究

在模拟的填埋场封场覆盖层上灌溉处理不同强度的渗滤液稀释液,研究其水量减量和主要污染物COD和NH3-N的去除效果。结果表明：一个生长季内,灌溉水量负荷12 mm/d条件下,裸土覆盖层的水量减量负荷均为7 mm/d左右,狗牙根覆盖层的水量减量负荷为7.7~11 mm/d,渗滤液原液灌溉处理时为7.7 mm/d;而灌溉渗滤液的强度从低到高,狗牙根生物量先增大后减小,狗牙根覆盖层的水量减量负荷与其生物量正相关;裸土覆盖层的COD去除率为65 %左右,NH3-N去除率为70 %~93 %;狗牙根覆盖层的COD去除率为68 %~93 %,NH3-N去除率为89 %~99 %; NH3-N的去除途径主要是转化为硝态氮和被植物吸收。渗滤液覆盖层灌溉处理有良好的水量减量和主要污染物去除效果,且有植被时效果更佳,表明填埋场封场覆盖层灌溉处理渗滤液是可行的。     

水稻流入施肥法及流入肥料效果研究

进行了流入施肥法可行性，流入肥肥效及替代进口肥料试验。结果表明：流入施肥法与人工撒施，均能使肥料在田间分布均匀，流入施肥法比人工撒施增产3．4％，流入施肥法是可行的，日本流入肥和国产复合肥流入施肥田间3－4d后，在田间分布都较均匀，水稻追施分蘖肥和穗肥时水的温度都在30℃左右，两种肥料的溶解度比较大，易配成溶液，适合作流以施用，日本流入肥和中国复合肥对水稻的增产效果相差不大，可用国产复合肥料替代进口肥料；吸附试验表明，施肥5d后，流入肥料和其它氮素肥料中氮素的吸附率达82．5％－89．3％，流入施肥后5d内不要排水。流入施肥法适合土地平整，田块较大，灌溉条件好，人多地少或农业人口老龄化和血吸虫疫区等平原湖区稻田。     

不同水耕年限稻田土壤水分运动特征研究

利用田间染色示踪和室内样品分析相结合的方法,研究了江汉平原不同水耕年限稻田土壤水分运动特征及其影响因素,期望为制定合理的稻田水分管理措施提供科学依据。结果表明:新稻田(水耕17a)与老稻田(水耕大于100a)土壤理化性质差异显著,引发土壤剖面内不同水分运动特征。新稻田垂直渗漏较老稻田明显,表现为新稻田有更大的染色深度。老稻田染色区域主要集中在耕作层,染色面积为48.52%;犁底层和底土层染色面积较小,仅为3.17%和0.2%。除耕作层外,新稻田其他土层染色面积均大于老稻田,且优先流特征较老稻田明显。老稻田侧向水分运动较新稻田强烈,其侧流剖面的染色面积(15.35%)显著高于新稻田(8.45%),老稻田侧向水流主要发生在犁底层以上。为减少稻田水分渗漏损失,老稻田可以通过减少农田-田埂-沟渠过渡区侧渗实现,而新稻田可采取少量多次的灌溉原则。     

滇池水污染经济损失估算

滇池的水污染问题已经严重影响昆明经济社会的可持续发展。为估算因水污染造成的经济损失，首先利用滇池外海8个观测点的水质监测数据，应用时空地质统计学模拟滇池水体各污染因子浓度的分布，并依据水质指标的浓度分布对滇池水质区域划分为北部、中部、南部3个区域，然后从饮用水、渔业、旅游、灌溉4种水体功能入手，结合詹姆斯“浓度-价值曲线”模型和污染损失率法分别对滇池每个区域的水污染经济损失进行估算。通过计算，2010年滇池水污染经济损失总计7275亿元，其中北部、中部、南部区域的水污染经济损失分别为1552、3759、1964亿元。从各区域的污染损失率来看，滇池水资源饮用水源功能已丧失，渔业功能部分丧失（损失率＞90%），目前滇池水资源主要用于旅游和灌溉     

丹江口库区坡耕地柑桔园不同覆盖方式下地表径流氮磷流失特征

以坡耕地柑桔园为研究对象，地表覆盖方式采用对照、秸秆覆盖和地膜覆盖3个处理，实验采用完全方案。结果表明，在本实验条件下，坡地地膜覆盖处理一定程度增加了径流量，而秸秆覆盖处理与对照每次降雨径流量基本相当；各处理土壤氮磷养分均有一定程度的流失，以氮素流失量较高，磷素流失量相对较低；在地膜覆盖条件下，柑桔园地表径流中N、P流失量较高，其总氮和总磷流失系数分别达0054%和0064%，而秸秆覆盖总氮和总磷流失系数最低；对不同地表覆盖方式柑桔园地表径流水体氮素形态特征分析表明，可溶性氮素占总氮的比例较高，可溶性氮素中又以NO-3 N为主，而NH+4 N所占的比重较低。以上结果说明，在丹江口库区，氮素污染风险要高于磷，防控的主要矛盾是氮，而秸秆覆盖是减少坡耕地养分流失较好的管理措施     

稻鸭、稻鱼共作对稻田P素动态变化的影响

以稻鸭和稻鱼生态系统为研究对象，通过大田试验研究了稻田P的动态变化及转化规律，及其对环境的影响。结果表明，施P后土壤和田面水P含量立即达到最大值，一周后迅速降低。相对于空白（CK），养鸭处理（RD）和养鱼处理（RF）田面水总P浓度、溶解P浓度、土壤速效P含量和水稻吸P量显著增加，而土壤全P含量有所增加。研究还表明，水稻吸P量与田面水溶解P、土壤速效P显著相关。对田面水P素径流流失的潜在环境效应分析表明，施P后的一周左右是控制P素流失的关键时期；由于养鸭养鱼能提高稻田P含量，在稻鸭、稻鱼共作期间，要注意避免农田排水和防止因降雨引起的田面水外溢。同时，由于鸭子和鱼能提高土壤有效养分含量，降低化肥的施用量，进而降低了化肥损失所造成的环境危害。     

Ethanol From Corn: Clean Renewable Fuel for the Future,or Drain on Our Resources and Pockets?

It is shown here that one burns 1 gallon of gasoline equivalent in fossil fuels to produce 1 gallon of gasoline equivalent as ethanol from corn. When this corn ethanol is burned as a gasoline additive or fuel, its use amounts to burning the same amount of fuel twice to drive a car once. Therefore, the fuel efficiency of those cars that burn corn ethanol is halved. The widespread use of corn ethanol will cause manifold damage to air, surface water, soil and aquifers. The overall energy balance of corn conversion to ethanol demonstrates that 65% of the input energy is lost during the conversion. Carbon dioxide sequestration by corn is nullified when corn ethanol is burned, and there will be additional carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, and sulfur oxide emissions from the fossil fuels used to produce the ethanol. Students in the Spring 2003 CE24 Freshman Seminar offered at U.C. Berkeley by the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

江苏太湖地区农业耕作制度变化及其对地表水土环境的影响

农业耕作制度变化及其环境效应是国内外广泛关注的学术前沿问题。近60 a来，江苏太湖地区农业耕作制度发生较大变化，主要表现在种植制度从偏重粮食生产转向粮经作物协调发展，用地作物增多而养地作物减少，作物品种经历了改进与优化过程，作物熟制经历了从“双三制”恢复到两熟制。施肥种类从有机肥为主转变为完全施用化肥，氮磷钾肥投入比例从长期严重失调发展到逐渐趋于协调。在总结近60 a来江苏太湖地区农业耕作制度变化特征的基础上，〖JP2〗分析了农业耕作制度变化对地表水土环境的影响，并提出了今后需要进一步关注的研究方向     

Importance of atmospherically deposited nitrogen to the annual nitrogen budget of the Neuse River estuary,North Carolina

Wet deposition of nitrogen, as NH(4)(+), NO(3)(-), and organic N, contributes up to 50% of the total externally supplied or 'new' N flux to the Neuse River Estuary (North Carolina). Excessive nitrogen (N) loading to N-sensitive waters such as the Neuse River Estuary has been linked to changes in microbial and algal community composition and function (harmful algal blooms), hypoxia/anoxia, and fish kills. In a 4-year study from July 1996 to July 2000, the weekly wet deposition of NH(4)(+), NO(3)(-), and dissolved organic N was calculated, based on concentration and precipitation measurements, at 11 sites on a northwest-southeast transect in the watershed. Data from this period indicate that the annual mean total wet atmospherically deposited (AD)-N flux was 11 kg ha(-1) year(-1). Deposition was fairly evenly distributed between nitrate, ammonium, and organics (32%, 32%, and 36%, respectively). Seasonally, the summer (June-August) months contained the highest weekly wet total N deposition; this trend was not driven by precipitation amount. Estimates of watershed N retention and in-stream riverine processing revealed that the AD-N flux contributed an estimated 20% (range of 15-51%) of the total 'new' N flux to the estuary, with direct deposition of N to the estuary surface accounting for 6% of the total 'new' N flux. This study did not measure the dry depositional flux, which may double the contribution of AD-N to the estuary. The AD-N is an important source of 'new' N to the Neuse River Estuary as well as other estuarine and coastal ecosystems downwind of major emission sources. As such, AD-N should be included in effective nutrient mitigation and management efforts for these N-sensitive waters.     

三峡库区消落带农用坡地磷素径流流失特征

消落带是三峡库区重要的生态交错带，但自发农用和无序开发可能会造成更多的氮磷流失，进而加剧三峡库区水体富营养化。通过对库区连续3 a的定位监测（2011~2013年），研究了三峡库区消落带农用坡地的磷素流失特征。结果表明：次降雨事件中常规施肥处理的地表径流、壤中流总磷平均浓度分别为0.848±0.153、0.140±0.006 mg/L，其中地表径流中磷的形态以颗粒态为主，壤中流以溶解态的生物可利用磷为主。常规施肥下，地表径流、壤中流磷素年均流失通量分别为0.236±0.004、0.100±0.003 kg·hm 2，地表径流、壤中流磷素流失通量分别占总流失通量的70.2%、29.8%，地表径流是坡地磷素流失的主要途径，但壤中流也是不可忽视的重要途径。与常规施肥处理相比，减量施肥处理地表径流、壤中流磷素流失量分别降低了45.3%、40.0%。建议采取减量施肥的方式，以降低营养盐负荷，保护水环境。     

植物篱对土壤养分流失的控制机理研究

植物篱是一种能有效减少地表径流、保土蓄水的水土保持措施,但其控制土壤养分流失相关机理的研究甚少。2001年在长江上游支流吒溪河的二级支流王家桥小流域设立的6个香根草(Vetiveriazizanioides)植物篱试验小区中进行地形测量及采样分析,拟通过局部地形变化、土壤颗粒和养分在小区内的空间分布变化来分析植物篱对紫色土区土壤养分流失的控制机理。坡型测量结果表明,植物篱带前出现泥沙堆积,说明植物篱能有效阻止侵蚀泥沙的向下搬运;机械组成分析结果表明,侵蚀影响下的土壤颗粒粒径在空间上出现分布差异,侵蚀剧烈的局部>0.2mm土壤颗粒明显富集,而植物篱对不同粒径的土壤颗粒的流失均有控制效果,但对粒径较大的颗粒的流失控制效果更明显;全量养分和速效养分含量空间分布的分析结果则表明,植物篱对土壤养分流失具有明显的控制作用。