菌根真菌增加植物抗盐碱胁迫的机理

菌根是菌根真菌与高等植物根系形成的一种共生体，能够促进植物在瘠薄土壤中的生长。文章通过综合近20年来国内外在菌根植物抗盐碱研究方面的成就，论述了在高盐胁迫下，菌根对其寄主植物耐盐碱能力的影响；指出菌根植物可能主要通过以下4个方面增加对高浓度盐碱环境的抗性：增加植株对P等矿质营养元素的吸收，改善了盐胁迫引起的营养亏缺；改变植物体内离子平衡，降低其生理毒害；增加植株对水分的吸收和利用能力，缓解了生理性干旱；改变了植物根系形态，促进根系水分吸收能力。在分析菌根真菌增加植物抗盐碱胁迫机理的基础上，还对该问题的研究前景提出了设想，为盐碱地改良提供参考依据。     

Cd胁迫下丛枝菌根对花生生长、光合生理及Cd吸收的影响

为了解丛枝菌根(AM)真菌对花生抗Cd胁迫的作用及其机理,采用温室盆栽试验,研究了Cd胁迫下接种AM真菌对花生生长、根系形态、Cd吸收及光合生理的影响.结果显示,AM真菌能与花生形成良好的共生关系,施Cd对菌根侵染率无影响;Cd胁迫下接种AM真菌能够显著改善花生生长状况,植株体内P含量与吸收量分别提高1.16—1.52、1.22—1.79倍,叶片叶绿素相对含量平均增幅11.79%,地上部分和根系生物量分别增加7.55%—8.19%、10.86%—14.05%,同时接种处理显著增大了花生根系的根长、根表面积、根体积,降低了植株地上部分Cd含量;对于同一施Cd水平而言,菌根花生叶片的最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)和潜在光化学效率(Fv/Fo)均显著高于非菌根植株,接种AM真菌使花生叶片的净光合速率(Pn)、蒸腾速率(Tr)和气孔导度(Gs)均显著增大,而胞间CO_2浓度(Ci)显著低于不接种处理.研究表明AM真菌可通过改变花生根系的形态结构来吸附固持重金属Cd,从而减少Cd向花生植株地上部分的转移,降低Cd胁迫对花生植株造成的伤害;另一方面,通过提高花生对矿质元素P的吸收来增加植株体内叶绿素含量及改善叶片叶绿素荧光和光合作用,增强花生抗Cd毒害的能力,进而促进花生生长,提高植株生物量.     

锌污染条件下VA菌根对三叶草生长和元素吸收的影响

采用三室隔网盆栽方法研究了3种不同施锌水平下，接种VA菌根菌（G.mosseae）对红三叶草植株生长和养分吸收的影响．结果表明，施锌水平对菌根侵染率无显著影响，说明供试菌种对锌的污染有较强的适应能力．菌根的浸染显著改善了植物的磷营养状况，使植株含磷量增加了1倍多，因此大大促进了植株的生长．菌根侵染对微量元素表现出不同的作用，与不接种的对照相比，菌根侵染植株体内Cu的含量增加，Fe的含量降低，而对Zn、Mn的影响不大．     

盐生植物在盐渍土壤改良中的作用

盐生植物盐爪爪〔Kalidiumfoliatum (Pall.)Moq.〕、盐地碱蓬 (SuaedasalsaL .Pall)、中亚滨藜 (AtriplexcentralasiatieaIljin)、西伯利亚白刺 (NitrariasibiricaPall) ,在中国禹城地区〔φ(N) =36°5 5′,λ(E) =116°40′〕含盐量较高 (1%～ 1.3%)的试验田中分别种植 .出苗后定苗 ,株密度n =80m-2 ,小区面积为 4m2 ,每种植物 3个重复 .种植前分别测定土壤Na+ 含量 ,N、P、K含量 ,有机质含量 ,细菌和真菌数量 .萌发后 15d测定植株干重、植株Na+ 含量 .在花芽形成期收获 ,再测定植物干重和植株Na+ 含量 ,以及土壤Na+ 含量 ,N、P、K含量 ,有机质含量 ,细菌和真菌数量 .结果发现 ,盐渍土壤种植 4种盐生植物 1个季度后 ,土壤Na+ 含量显著降低 ,每季盐爪爪从土壤中吸收Na+ 量 934 5 .6kg/hm2 ,盐地碱蓬吸收Na+ 量 6 85 1.4kg/hm2 ,西伯利亚白刺吸收 6 0 19.2kg/hm2 ,中亚滨藜吸收 6 0 98.4kg/hm2 .土壤有机质 ,N、P、K以及细菌和真菌数量也有不同程度的增加 .这再次证明 ,盐生植物是一类良好的吸盐植物 .并对盐渍土壤种植盐生植物后Na+盐降低、土壤肥力和微生物数量增加的原因进行了讨论 .表 7参 13     

接种Glomus versiforme对红三叶草利用有机磷的影响

以红三叶草为材料，利用三室隔网培养方法，研究接种菌根真菌Glmous versiforme对土壤有机磷及外加有机磷化合物植酸钠（Na-Phytate)、核糖核酸（RNA）和卵磷脂（Lecithin)的利用效率，植株生长7wk后收获测定植标干物重、含磷量和根系菌根侵染率，结果表明：接种菌根真菌能明显增加植株干物重、含磷量和吸磷总量，与各有机磷处理相比，无机磷（KH2PO4）处理生长效应最好，施用有机磷化合物各处理与CK相比均明显促进了植株生长，但不同有机磷处理之间没有显著差异，在植株吸磷量上，各接种处理均为相应CK处理的2倍以上，其中磷酸二氢钾处理吸磷量最高，菌根对照植物的根外菌丝虽然被限制在有限的空间内，但其吸磷量也达到不施磷的CK－M处理的2倍多，这说明由于菌根的形成植物能利用土壤因有的有机磷来满足自身生长的需要，表3参10     

盐胁迫下接种丛枝苗根真菌对甜菊生长和氮磷吸收的影响

盐胁迫是普遍而严重的世界性环境问题,丛枝菌根(Abuscular mycorrhizal,AM)真菌被认为是提高植物抗盐性的有效的生物方法.甜菊(Stevia rebaudiana)作为一种新兴的保健型糖源植物,分布范围较广.通过设置盐胁迫(0mmol/L和200 mmol/L)和接种AM真菌(未接种和接种摩西球囊霉)4种处理组合,解析AM真菌对甜菊抗盐性的作用机理.结果发现,盐胁迫显著降低了甜菊的各部分鲜重和干重、基质pH值和菌根化结构形成的强度,但显著增加了植株的氮、磷含量.在非盐胁迫下,接种AM真菌显著增加了植株各部分的鲜重和干重;而在高盐处理下,AM真菌的促进效应则不明显,这可能与高盐下AM真菌结构的形成和发育状况的显著降低有关.此外,接种AM真菌显著增加了甜菊植株的磷含量尤其是在高盐胁迫下,且随着盐浓度的升高,甜菊的氮依赖性显著下降而磷依赖性显著升高,促进磷元素的吸收可能是AM真菌提高甜菊耐盐性的内在机理.本研究表明,接种摩西球囊霉可显著增加非盐胁迫下甜菊的生物量,同时有利于高盐胁迫下甜菊植株磷元素的吸收,这可为甜菊的产业化经营和管理提供一定的理论依据.     

燕麦对盐碱胁迫的反应和适应性

研究了自然盐碱胁迫对燕麦植株生长、水势、渗透调节物质质量分数以及对K 、Na 选择性吸收的影响,结果表明,随着土壤盐碱胁迫的增强燕麦植株生长受抑,叶片和根系的水势较对照均有所降低,其中裸燕麦较皮燕麦水势下降幅度大,表明裸燕麦比皮燕麦对盐碱胁迫更敏感。燕麦叶片内脯氨酸和可溶性糖累积。随着土壤盐碱胁迫的增强植株对Na 的吸收增加,对K 的吸收受到抑制,从而使w(Na )/w(K )和SNa K 值升高。在盐碱胁迫下,燕麦是以合成和积累有机溶质(脯氨酸和可溶性糖)以及吸收和积累无机离子(Na )来进行渗透调节,以适应盐碱胁迫。     

外生菌根真菌对油松幼苗根际土壤重金属赋存的影响

油松幼苗接种菌根盆栽试验表明,外生菌根真菌对油松根际土壤重金属铜、镉的赋存形态产生显著影响.与普通根际相比,菌根际土壤中交换态铜、镉含量显著下降,而有机结合态含量则显著增加.菌根际土壤重金属形态呈现出由疏松结合态向紧密结合态转化的趋势.接种菌根显著降低根际重金属的生物有效性,缓解重金属对寄主植物的毒害作用.     

AM真菌和施钾量对烟草植株钾素累积和分布的交互效应

采用盆栽试验，研究了不同施K水平下接种AM真菌摩西球囊霉（Glomus mosseae）对烤烟烟叶生长和植株中K素累积和分布的影响。结果表明，不同施K水平对AM真菌的接种效果有显著的影响，以每公斤土施K2O0.75-1.125g时接种效果最好。接种AM真菌提高了烟草根系菌根侵染率，增加了烟叶总干重，其中对中位烟叶效果明显，上位和下位烟叶因施K量而异，接种AM真菌显著增加了K在叶中的分配比例，减少了K在茎中的分配比例，提高了烟叶中K素的累积量，增加了成熟期烟叶K的含量。表5参8。     

菌根真菌处理下滇重楼对营养元素的吸收和积累

通过室温盆栽接种实验,研究在灭菌土壤中,不同丛枝菌根(arbuscular mycorrhizal,AM)真菌处理对滇重楼不同采收期的根际土壤和药材中N、P、K、Mg、Na、Ca等10种营养元素吸收积累的影响.结果表明,接种不同AM真菌可增加果熟期重楼药材中Mg、Na、Zn、Ni等营养元素的含量,并能降低重金属离子Cu的含量,而衰老期无明显差异;还可对滇重楼根际土壤中N、P、K、Mn、Ni等营养元素浓度产生一定影响,增强滇重楼对Mg、Zn、Ni的富集能力.在滇重楼的生长过程中,根际土壤和药材中的营养元素含量间存在相关性:成熟期根际土壤中Na含量与药材中N含量呈正相关,衰老期根际土壤P含量与药材中N、Mg含量呈负相关.土壤与药材中的营养元素含量相互影响,并对药材的品质形成有较大影响.故可通过接种AM真菌增加根际土壤和滇重楼药材中相关营养元素的含量,从而起到提高重楼品质的作用.     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.