Estimation and field measurement of methane emission from waste landfills in Hanoi, Vietnam

A methodology for estimating the methane emissions from waste landfills in Hanoi, Vietnam, as part of a case study on Asian cities, was derived based on a survey of documents and statistics related to waste management, interviews with persons in charge, and field investigations at landfill sites. The waste management system in Hanoi was analyzed to evaluate the methane emissions from waste landfill sites. The quantity of waste deposited into the landfill was evaluated from an investigation of the waste stream. The composition of municipal waste was surveyed in several districts in the Hanoi city area, and the quantities of degradable organic waste that had been deposited into landfill for the past 15 years were estimated. Field surveys on methane emissions from landfills of different ages (0.5, 2, and 8 years) were conducted and their methane emissions were estimated to be 120, 22.5, and 4.38 ml/min/m², respectively. The first-order reaction rate of methane generation was obtained as 0.51/year. Methane emissions from waste landfills were calculated by a first-order decay model using this emission factor and the amount of landfilled degradable waste. The estimates of methane emissions using the model accorded well with the estimates of the field survey. These results revealed that methane emissions from waste landfills estimated by regional-specific and precise information on the waste stream are essential for accurately determining the behavior of methane emissions from waste landfills in the past, present, and future.     

Methane flux and oxidation at two types of intermediate landfill covers

Methane emissions were measured on two areas at a Florida (USA) landfill using the static chamber technique. Because existing literature contains few measurements of methane emissions and oxidation in intermediate cover areas, this study focused on field measurement of emissions at 15-cm-thick non-vegetated intermediate cover overlying 1-year-old waste and a 45-cm-thick vegetated intermediate cover overlying 7-year-old waste. The 45 cm thick cover can also simulate non-engineered covers associated with older closed landfills. Oxidation of the emitted methane was evaluated using stable isotope techniques. The arithmetic means of the measured fluxes were 54 and 22 g CH(4) m(-2)d(-1) from the thin cover and the thick cover, respectively. The peak flux was 596 g m(-2)d(-1) for the thin cover and 330 g m(-2)d(-1) for the thick cover. The mean percent oxidation was significantly greater (25%) at the thick cover relative to the thin cover (14%). This difference only partly accounted for the difference in emissions from the two sites. Inverse distance weighing was used to describe the spatial variation of flux emissions from each cover type. The geospatial mean flux was 21.6 g m(-2)d(-1) for the thick intermediate cover and 50.0 g m(-2)d(-1) for the thin intermediate cover. High emission zones in the thick cover were fewer and more isolated, while high emission zones in the thin cover were continuous and covered a larger area. These differences in the emission patterns suggest that different CH(4) mitigation techniques should be applied to the two areas. For the thick intermediate cover, we suggest that effective mitigation of methane emissions could be achieved by placement of individualized compost cells over high emission zones. Emissions from the thin intermediate cover, on the other hand, can be mitigated by placing a compost layer over the entire area.     

Generating CO2-credits through landfill in situ aeration

Landfills are some of the major anthropogenic sources of methane emissions worldwide. The installation and operation of gas extraction systems for many landfills in Europe and the US, often including technical installations for energy recovery, significantly reduced these emissions during the last decades. Residual landfill gas, however, is still continuously produced after the energy recovery became economically unattractive, thus resulting in ongoing methane emissions for many years. By landfill in situ aeration these methane emissions can be widely avoided both, during the aeration process as well as in the subsequent aftercare period. Based on model calculations and online monitoring data the amount of avoided CO_2-eq. can be determined. For an in situ aerated landfill in northern Germany, acting as a case study, 83–95% (depending on the kind and quality of top cover) of the greenhouse gas emission potential could be reduced under strictly controlled conditions. Recently the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has approved a new methodology on the “Avoidance of landfill gas emissions by in situ aeration of landfills” (UNFCCC, 2009). Based on this methodology landfill aeration projects might be considered for generation of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) in the course of CDM projects. This paper contributes towards an evaluation of the potential of landfill aeration for methane emissions reduction.     

Mitigation of methane emission from an old unlined landfill in Klintholm,Denmark using a passive biocover system

Methane generated at landfills contributes to global warming and can be mitigated by biocover systems relying on microbial methane oxidation. As part of a closure plan for an old unlined landfill without any gas management measures, an innovative biocover system was established. The system was designed based on a conceptual model of the gas emission patterns established through an initial baseline study. The study included construction of gas collection trenches along the slopes of the landfill where the majority of the methane emissions occurred. Local compost materials were tested as to their usefulness as bioactive methane oxidizing material and a suitable compost mixture was selected. Whole site methane emission quantifications based on combined tracer release and downwind measurements in combination with several local experimental activities (gas composition within biocover layers, flux chamber based emission measurements and logging of compost temperatures) proved that the biocover system had an average mitigation efficiency of approximately 80%. The study showed that the system also had a high efficiency during winter periods with temperatures below freezing. An economic analysis indicated that the mitigation costs of the biocover system were competitive to other existing greenhouse gas mitigation options.     

Quantifying methane emission from fugitive sources by combining tracer release and downwind measurements – A sensitivity analysis based on multiple field surveys

Using a dual species methane/acetylene instrument based on cavity ring down spectroscopy (CRDS), the dynamic plume tracer dispersion method for quantifying the emission rate of methane was successfully tested in four measurement campaigns: (1) controlled methane and trace gas release with different trace gas configurations, (2) landfill with unknown emission source locations, (3) landfill with closely located emission sources, and (4) comparing with an Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) instrument using multiple trace gasses for source separation. The new real-time, high precision instrument can measure methane plumes more than 1.2 km away from small sources (about 5 kg h^?1) in urban areas with a measurement frequency allowing plume crossing at normal driving speed. The method can be used for quantification of total methane emissions from diffuse area sources down to 1 kg per hour and can be used to quantify individual sources with the right choice of wind direction and road distance. The placement of the trace gas is important for obtaining correct quantification and uncertainty of up to 36% can be incurred when the trace gas is not co-located with the methane source. Measurements made at greater distances are less sensitive to errors in trace gas placement and model calculations showed an uncertainty of less than 5% in both urban and open-country for placing the trace gas 100 m from the source, when measurements were done more than 3 km away. Using the ratio of the integrated plume concentrations of tracer gas and methane gives the most reliable results for measurements at various distances to the source, compared to the ratio of the highest concentration in the plume, the direct concentration ratio and using a Gaussian plume model. Under suitable weather and road conditions, the CRDS system can quantify the emission from different sources located close to each other using only one kind of trace gas due to the high time resolution, while the FTIR system can measure multiple trace gasses but with a lower time resolution.     

Availability and properties of materials for the Fakse Landfill biocover

Methane produced in landfills can be oxidized in landfill covers made of compost; often called biocovers. Compost materials originating from seven different sources were characterized to determine their methane-oxidizing capacity and suitability for use in a full-scale biocover at Fakse Landfill in Denmark. Methane oxidation rates were determined in batch incubations. Based on material availability, characteristics, and the results of batch incubations, five of the seven materials were selected for further testing in column incubations. Three of the best performing materials showed comparable average methane oxidation rates: screened garden waste compost, sewage sludge compost, and an unscreened 4-year old garden waste compost (120, 112, and 108 g m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively). On the basis of these results, material availability and cost, the unscreened garden waste compost was determined to be the optimal material for the biocover. Comparing the results to criteria given in the literature it was found that the C/N ratio was the best indicator of the methane oxidation capacity of compost materials. The results of this work indicate that batch incubations measuring methane oxidation rates offer a low-cost and effective method for comparing compost sources for suitability of use in landfill biocovers.     

Comparison of first-order-decay modeled and actual field measured municipal solid waste landfill methane data

The first-order decay (FOD) model is widely used to estimate landfill gas generation for emissions inventories, life cycle assessments, and regulation. The FOD model has inherent uncertainty due to underlying uncertainty in model parameters and a lack of opportunities to validate it with complete field-scale landfill data sets. The objectives of this paper were to estimate methane generation, fugitive methane emissions, and aggregated collection efficiency for landfills through a mass balance approach using the FOD model for gas generation coupled with literature values for cover-specific collection efficiency and methane oxidation. This study is unique and valuable because actual field data were used in comparison with modeled data. The magnitude and variation of emissions were estimated for three landfills using site-specific model parameters and gas collection data, and compared to vertical radial plume mapping emissions measurements. For the three landfills, the modeling approach slightly under-predicted measured emissions and over-estimated aggregated collection efficiency, but the two approaches yielded statistically equivalent uncertainties expressed as coefficients of variation. Sources of uncertainty include challenges in large-scale field measurement of emissions and spatial and temporal fluctuations in methane flow balance components (generated, collected, oxidized, and emitted methane). Additional publication of sets of field-scale measurement data and methane flow balance components will reduce the uncertainty in future estimates of fugitive emissions.     

Methane emissions from MBT landfills

Within the scope of an investigation for the German Federal Environment Agency (“Umweltbundesamt”), the basics for the estimation of the methane emissions from the landfilling of mechanically and biologically treated waste (MBT) were developed. For this purpose, topical research including monitoring results regarding the gas balance at MBT landfills was evaluated.For waste treated to the required German standards, a methane formation potential of approximately 18–24 m³ CH₄/t of total dry solids may be expected. Monitoring results from MBT landfills show that a three-phase model with differentiated half-lives describes the degradation kinetics in the best way. This is due to the fact that during the first years of disposal, the anaerobic degradation processes still proceed relatively intensively. In addition in the long term (decades), a residual gas production at a low level is still to be expected.Most of the soils used in recultivation layer systems at German landfills show a relatively high methane oxidation capacity up to 5 l CH₄/(m² h). However, measurements at MBT disposal sites indicate that the majority of the landfill gas (in particular at non-covered areas), leaves the landfill body via preferred gas emission zones (hot spots) without significant methane oxidation. Therefore, rather low methane oxidation factors are recommended for open and temporarily covered MBT landfills. Higher methane oxidation rates can be achieved when the soil/recultivation layer is adequately designed and operated.Based on the elaborated default values, the First Order Decay (FOD) model of the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 2006, was used to estimate the methane emissions from MBT landfills. Due to the calculation made by the authors emissions in the range of 60,000–135,000 t CO_2-eq./a for all German MBT landfills can be expected. This wide range shows the uncertainties when the here used procedure and the limited available data are applied. It is therefore necessary to generate more data in the future in order to calculate more precise methane emission rates from MBT landfills. This is important for the overall calculation of the climate gas production in Germany which is required once a year by the German Government.     

Methane Emission Estimates from Landfills Obtained with Dynamic Plume Measurements

Methane emissions from 3 different landfills inthe Netherlands were estimated using a mobileTuneable Diode Laser system (TDL). The methaneconcentration in the cross section of the plumeis measured downwind of the source on a transectperpendicular to the wind direction. A gaussianplume model was used to simulate theconcentration levels at the transect. Theemission from the source is calculated from themeasured and modelled concentration levels.Calibration of the plume dispersion model isdone using a tracer (N₂O) that is releasedfrom the landfill and measured simultaneouslywith the TDL system. The emission estimates forthe different locations ranged from 3.6 to 16 m³ ha^-1 hr^-1 for the differentsites. The emission levels were compared toemission estimates based on the landfill gasproduction models. This comparison suggestsoxidation rates that are up to 50% in springand negligible in November. At one of the threesites measurements were performed in campaignsin 3 consecutive years. Comparison of theemission levels in the first and second yearshowed a reduction of the methane emission ofabout 50% due to implementation of a gasextraction system. From the second to the thirdyear emissions increased by a factor of 4 due tonew landfilling. Furthermore measurements wereperformed in winter when oxidation efficiencywas reduced. This paper describes themeasurement technique used, and discusses theresults of the experimental sessions that were performed.     

Implications of the spatial variability of landfill emission rates on geospatial analyses

Accurate methods quantifying whole landfill surface flux of methane are important for regulatory and research purposes. This paper presents the results from the analysis of chamber measurements utilizing geospatial techniques [kriging and inverse distance weighting (IDW)] to arrive at an estimation of the whole landfill surface flux from the spatially distributed chamber measurement points. The difficulties in utilizing these methods will be discussed. Methane flux was determined on approximately 20 m grid spacing and variogram analysis was performed in order to model spatial structure, which was used to estimate methane flux at unsampled locations through kriging. Our analysis indicates that while the semi-variogram model showed some spatial structure, IDW was a more accurate interpolation method for this particular site. This was seen in the comparison of the resulting contour maps. IDW, coupled with surface area algorithms to extract the total area of user defined contour intervals, provides a superior estimate of the methane flux as confirmed through the methane balance. It is critical that the results of the emissions estimates be viewed in light of the whole cell methane balance; otherwise, there is no rational check and balance system to validate the results.     

Applying guidance for methane emission estimation for landfills

Quantification of methane emission from landfills is important to evaluate measures for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Both the United Nations and the European Union have adopted protocols to ensure quantification of methane emission from individual landfills. The purpose of these protocols is to disclose emission data to regulators and the general public. Criteria such as timeliness, completeness, certainty, comparability, consistency and transparency are set for inclusion of emission data in a publicly accessible database. All methods given as guidance to landfill operators to estimate landfill methane emissions are based on models. In this paper the consequences of applying six different models for estimates of three landfills are explored. It is not the intention of this paper to criticise or validate models. The modelling results are compared with whole site methane emission measurements. A huge difference in results is observed. This raises doubts about the accuracy of the models. It also indicates that at least some of the criteria previously mentioned are not met for the tools currently available to estimate methane emissions from individual landfills. This will inevitably lead to compiling and comparing data with an incomparable origin. Harmonization of models is recommended. This may not necessarily reduce uncertainty, but it will at least result in comparable, consistent and transparent data.     

Estimation of mass transport parameters of gases for quantifying CH4 oxidation in landfill soil covers

Methane (CH(4)), which is one of the most abundant anthropogenic greenhouse gases, is produced from landfills. CH(4) is biologically oxidized to carbon dioxide, which has a lower global warming potential than methane, when it passes through a cover soil. In order to quantify the amount of CH(4) oxidized in a landfill cover soil, a soil column test, a diffusion cell test, and a mathematical model analysis were carried out. In the column test, maximum oxidation rates of CH(4) (V(max)) showed higher values in the upper part of the column than those in the lower part caused by the penetration of O(2) from the top. The organic matter content in the upper area was also higher due to the active microbial growth. The dispersion analysis results for O(2) and CH(4) in the column are counter-intuitive. As the upward flow rate of the landfill gas increased, the dispersion coefficient of CH(4) slightly increased, possibly due to the effect of mechanical dispersion. On the other hand, as the upward flow rate of the landfill gas increased, the dispersion coefficient of O(2) decreased. It is possible that the diffusion of gases in porous media is influenced by the counter-directional flow rate. Further analysis of other gases in the column, N(2) and CO(2), may be required to support this hypothesis, but in this paper we propose the possibility that the simulations using the diffusion coefficient of O(2) under the natural condition may overestimate the penetration of O(2) into the soil cover layer and consequently overestimate the oxidation of CH(4).     

Methane generation in tropical landfills: simplified methods and field results

This paper deals with the use of simplified methods to predict methane generation in tropical landfills. Methane recovery data obtained on site as part of a research program being carried out at the Metropolitan Landfill, Salvador, Brazil, is analyzed and used to obtain field methane generation over time. Laboratory data from MSW samples of different ages are presented and discussed; and simplified procedures to estimate the methane generation potential, Lo, and the constant related to the biodegradation rate, k are applied. The first order decay method is used to fit field and laboratory results. It is demonstrated that despite the assumptions and the simplicity of the adopted laboratory procedures, the values Lo and k obtained are very close to those measured in the field, thus making this kind of analysis very attractive for first approach purposes.     

SEASONAL AND DIURNAL METHANE EMISSIONS FROM A LANDFILL AND THEIR REGULATION BY METHANE OXIDATION

Rates of methane emission from a Swedish landfill, measured by chamber technique and permanent frames, ranged between 0.034 and 20 mmol CH₄m⁻². h⁻¹on average. The emissions followed a seasonal pattern, with the highest fluxes occurring between September and May. Methane concentrations in soil also followed a seasonal pattern, with a marked decrease during summers. Using the means of methane emission rates from frost-free periods, a stepwise regression model was made, that could explain 95% of the variation. Soil temperature turned out to be the dominating factor, explaining 85% when transformed to a second-degree function. Methane emissions were negatively correlated with soil temperature, which strongly suggests that biological methane oxidation is an important regulating factor. The activity of methane-oxidizing microorganisms was greatest around 0.5–0.6 m depth in the soil profile, and moisture at this level enhanced emissions. The tendency for methane emissions to be higher at night was probably due to the inhibitory influence of low soil temperatures on methane-oxidizing microorganisms.     

Methane yield in source-sorted organic fraction of municipal solid waste

Treating the source-separated organic fraction of municipal solid waste (SS-OFMSW) by anaerobic digestion is considered by many municipalities in Europe as an environmentally friendly means of treating organic waste and simultaneously producing methane gas. Methane yield can be used as a parameter for evaluation of the many different systems that exist for sorting and pre-treating waste. Methane yield from the thermophilic pilot scale digestion of 17 types of domestically SS-OFMSW originating from seven full-scale sorting systems was found. The samples were collected during 1 year using worked-out procedures tested statistically to ensure representative samples. Each waste type was identified by its origin and by pre-sorting, collection and pre-treatment methods. In addition to the pilot scale digestion, all samples were examined by chemical analyses and methane potential measurements. A VS-degradation rate of around 80% and a methane yield of 300-400Nm(3) CH(4)/ton VS(in) were achieved with a retention time of 15 days, corresponding to approximately 70% of the methane potential. The different waste samples gave minor variation in chemical composition and thus also in methane yield and methane potential. This indicates that sorting and collection systems in the present study do not significantly affect the amount of methane produced per VS treated.     

Wet landfill decomposition rate determination using methane yield results for excavated waste samples

An increasing number of landfills are operated to accelerate waste decomposition through liquids addition (e.g., leachate recirculation) as a wet landfill. Landfill design and regulation often depend on utilizing landfill gas production models that require an estimate of a first-order gas generation rate constant, k. Consequently, several studies have estimated k using collected gas volumes from operating wet landfills. Research was conducted to examine an alternative approach in which k is estimated not from collected landfill gas but from solid waste samples collected over time and analyzed for remaining gas yield. To achieve this goal, waste samples were collected from 1990 through 2007 at two full-scale landfills in Florida that practiced liquids addition. Methane yields were measured from waste samples collected over time, including periods before and after leachate recirculation, and the results were applied to a first-order decay model to estimate rate constants for each of the sites. An initial, intensive processing step was conducted to exclude non-biodegradable components from the methane yield testing procedure. The resulting rate constants for the two landfills examined were 0.47 yr(-1) and 0.21 yr(-1). These results expectedly exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency's rate constants for dry and conventional landfills (0.02-0.05 yr(-1)), but they are comparable to wet landfill rate constants derived using landfill gas data (0.1-0.3 yr(-1)).     

Assessing the market opportunities of landfill mining

Long-term estimates make clear that the amount of solid waste to be processed at landfills in the Netherlands will sharply decline in coming years. Major reasons can be found in the availability of improved technologies for waste recycling and government regulations aiming at waste reduction. Consequently, market size for companies operating landfills shrinks. Among the companies facing the problem is the Dutch company Essent. Given the expected market conditions, it looks for alternative business opportunities. Landfill mining, i.e., the recycling of existing landfills, is considered one of them. Proceeds of landfill mining are related to, for example, recycled materials available for re-use, regained land, and possibilities for a more efficient operation of a landfill. The market for landfill mining is of a considerable size--there are about 3800 landfills located in the Netherlands. Given market size the company faces the dilemma of how to explore this market, i.e., select the most profitable landfills in a fast and efficient way. No existing methods or tools could be found to do so. Therefore, to answer to the problem posed, we propose a step-wise research method for market exploration. The basic idea behind the method is to provide an adequate, cost-saving and timely answer by relying on a series of quick scans. Relevant aspects of a mining project concern the proceeds of regained land and recyclables, the costs of the mining operation and the associated business and environmental risks. The method has been tested for its practical use in a pilot study. The pilot study addressed 147 landfills located in the Dutch Province of Noord-Brabant. The study made clear how method application resulted in the selection of a limited number of high potential landfills in a few weeks, involving minimal research costs.     

Approaches to assess biocover performance on landfills

Methane emissions from active or closed landfills can be reduced by means of methane oxidation enhanced in properly designed landfill covers, known as “biocovers”. Biocovers usually consist of a coarse gas distribution layer to balance gas fluxes placed beneath an appropriate substrate layer. The application of such covers implies use of measurement methods and evaluation approaches, both during the planning stage and throughout the operation of biocovers in order to demonstrate their efficiency. Principally, various techniques, commonly used to monitor landfill surface emissions, can be applied to control biocovers. However, particularly when using engineered materials such as compost substrates, biocovers often feature several altered, specific properties when compared to conventional covers, e.g., respect to gas permeability, physical parameters including water retention capacity and texture, and methane oxidation activity. Therefore, existing measuring methods should be carefully evaluated or even modified prior to application on biocovers. This paper discusses possible strategies to be applied in monitoring biocover functionality. On the basis of experiences derived from investigations and large-scale field trials with compost biocovers in Austria, an assessment approach has been developed. A conceptual draft for monitoring biocover performance and recommendations for practical application are presented.     

Uncontrolled methane emissions from a MSW landfill surface: Influence of landfill features and side slopes

Sanitary landfills for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) disposal have been identified as one of the most important anthropogenic sources of methane (CH₄) emissions; in order to minimize its negative effects on the environment, landfill gas (LFG) recovery is a suitable tool to control CH₄ emissions from a landfill site; further, the measurement of CH₄ emissions can represent a good way to evaluate the effectiveness of LFG recovering systems. In general, LFG will escape through any faults in the landfill capping or in the LFG collection system. Indeed, some areas of the capping can be more permeable than others (e.g. portions of a side slope), especially when considering a temporarily capped zone (covered area that is not expected to receive any further waste for a period of at least 3 months, but for engineering reasons does not have a permanent cap yet). These areas, which are characterized by abnormal emissions, are usually defined as “features”: in particular, a feature is a small, discrete area or an installation where CH₄ emissions significantly differ from the surrounding zones. In the present study, the influence that specific features have on CH₄ emissions has been investigated, based on direct measurements carried out in different seasons by means of a flux chamber to the case study of Palermo (IT) landfill (Bellolampo). The results showed that the flux chamber method is reliable and easy to perform, and the contoured flux maps, obtained by processing the measured data were found to be a suitable tool for identifying areas with abnormal (high) emissions. Further, it was found that a relationship between methane emission rates and landfill side slope can be established. Concerning the influence of the temporary HDPE cover system on CH₄ recovery efficiency, it contributed to a significant decrease of the free surface area available for uncontrolled emissions; this aspect, coupled to the increase of the CH₄ volumes collected by the LFG recovery system, led to a significant increase of the recovery efficiency.     

Scrutinizing compost properties and their impact on methane oxidation efficiency

Methane emissions from active or closed landfills can be reduced by means of microbial methane oxidation enhanced by properly designed landfill covers and engineered biocovers. Composts produced using different waste materials have already been proven to support methane oxidation, and may represent a low-cost alternative to other suitable substrates such as sandy or humic-rich soils, which are frequently not available in sufficient amounts or are too costly. In the present study a data set of 30 different compost materials (different age and input materials) and mixtures, as well as seven soils and mineral substrates were tested to assess methane oxidation rate under similar conditions in a laboratory column set-up. Multivariate data analysis (discriminant analysis) was applied to predict the influence of 21 different parameters (chemical, maturation and physical) on methane oxidation rate in a PLS-DA model. The results show that bulk density, total nutrient content (nitrogen and phosphorus), as well as the quantity and quality (with respect to maturity) of organic matter determined methane oxidation rate in this data set. The model explained 50% of the data variation, indicating how characterisation of oxidation rate by single, even diverse conventional parameters was limited. Thus for the first time, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied to a series of samples to better determine the characteristics of methane-oxidising materials. The initial data obtained in this study appear to be most promising. The prediction of specific methane oxidation rate of a potential biocover material from FTIR spectra and multivariate data analyses is a target to be focused on in the future.