Using the Triad Approach to expedite the acquisition of an Abbott district school site

The Triad Approach was field‐tested to determine if characterization objectives could be met for a brownfields property that had been identified as a future elementary school site. The new school is in response to a New Jersey Supreme Court ruling (the Abbott decision) that directed the state of New Jersey to fund school construction in poorer districts to expand physical facilities to relieve overcrowding. The Triad Approach is promoted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a process that has the potential to improve the timeliness and efficiency of site characterization, and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) recently issued a policy statement supporting its potential. Aggressive school construction deadlines are contingent on property acquisitions that are relatively faster than the traditional investigatory process. In addition, given the future sensitive population, the investigations must be thorough. This case study is among the first studies to document the use of the Triad Approach for a future school site. The Triad Approach was used to define site conditions for six areas of concern in a two‐month time frame (from the start of the planning process to completed investigation). © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Improving decision quality: Making the case for adopting next‐generation site characterization practices

Better site characterization is critical for cheaper, faster, and more effective cleanup. This fact is especially true as cleanup decisions increasingly include site redevelopment and reuse considerations. However, established attitudes about what constitutes “data quality” create many barriers to exciting new tools capable of achieving better characterization, slowing their dissemination into the mainstream. Traditional approaches to environmental “data quality” rest on simplifying assumptions that are rarely acknowledged by the environmental community. Data quality assessments focus on the quality of the analysis, while seldom asking what impact matrix heterogeneity has had on analytical results. Assessments of data quality typically assume that chemical contaminants are distributed nearly homogeneously throughout environmental matrices and that contaminant‐matrix interactions are well behaved during analysis. Yet, these assumptions seldom hold true for real‐world matrices and contaminants at scales relevant to accurate risk assessment and efficient remedial design. For the site cleanup industry to continue technical advancement, over‐simplified paradigms must give way to next‐generation models that are built on current scientific understanding. If reuse programs such as Brownfields are to thrive, the scientific defensibility of individual projects must be maintained at the same time as characterization and cleanup costs are lowered. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) offers the Triad Approach as an alternative paradigm to foster highly defensible, yet extremely cost‐effective reuse decisions. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Triad case study: Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton

The U.S. Navy Public Works Center (PWC) Environmental Department, San Diego, California, is home to the Navy West Coast Site Characterization and Analysis Penetrometer System (SCAPS). SCAPS has been extensively used at several Navy sites since 1995 to provide real‐time, high‐density data sets. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Triad approach provided an ideal framework for optimizing the use of the Navy SCAPS during a volatile organic compound (VOC) source investigation at Installation Restoration Site 1114 at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton. All three elements of Triad—systematic planning, dynamic work strategy, and use of real‐time measurement tools—were implemented to manage decision uncertainty and expedite the site management process. The investigation was conducted using the Navy SCAPS, outfitted with a cone penetrometer, membrane interface probe, and a direct sampling ion trap mass spectrometry detector, which allowed for real‐ time collection of over 690 feet of continuous lithologic information and VOC concentration data. These data were used collaboratively with 24‐hour turnaround US EPA 8260B VOC groundwater results from temporary direct‐ push wells to support the conclusion of a limited source area. Implementation of the Triad approach for this investigation provided an expedited high‐density data set and a refined conceptual site model (CSM) in real time that resulted in cost savings estimated at $2.5M and reduction of the site characterization and cleanup schedule by approximately three years. This project demonstrates how the US EPA's Triad approach can be applied to streamline the site characterization and cleanup process while appropriately managing decision uncertainty in support of defensible site decisions. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Facilitating brownfields transactions using Triad and environmental insurance

A significant hindrance to reuse of brownfields properties is the risk associated with redevelopment,specifically the uncertainty associated with environmental cleanup. This article explores an approach tomanaging environmental risk through a combination of risk quantification, environmental insurance, and theTriad Approach to site sampling and data interpretation. The expected costs of environmental liabilities areestimated using the Marsh Peer ReviewSM risk quantification process that employs statistical techniques andhighly experienced technical staff. The outputs of the process indicate premiums and attachment points forinsurance products, but they also point to “critical uncertainties” that drive the insurancepremiums. Insurance premiums are often linked to site delineation deficiencies, such as the magnitude ofimpacted soil or the size of a groundwater plume. The Triad Approach is an integrated site characterizationprocess developed by the Environmental Protection Agency that combines systematic planning, dynamic or adaptivefield decision making and field analytical methods (FAMs). The real‐time data produced by FAMsallow for in‐field resolution of uncertainty about sample location, which in turn provides morerepresentative delineation of contaminant distribution. The trade‐off of using slightly less accuratebut substantially lower cost FAMs is an increase in sampling frequency or density, thereby reducing the risk ofincomplete detection or delineation while yielding a “data set” that is more powerful than fewerindividual data points analyzed through traditional methods. Employing the Triad Approach to analyze the“critical uncertainties” identified in the Peer Review Process can impact insurance premiums andallow for better terms of coverage. The combination of using the Triad Approach and environmental insuranceproducts can lead to more predictable and profitable Brownfield transactions. © 2003 Wiley Peridicals,Inc.     

Use of mixed technologies to remediate chlorinated DNAPL at a Brownfields site

A former chlorofluorocarbon manufacturing facility in northern New Jersey was purchased for redevelopment as a warehousing/distribution center as part of the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection's Brownfields redevelopment initiative. Soil and groundwater at the site were impacted with dense nonaqueous‐phase liquids (chlorinated organic compounds) and light nonaqueous‐phase liquids (petroleum hydrocarbons). The initial remedial strategy (excavation and offsite disposal) developed by prior site owners would have been cost‐prohibitive to the new site owners and made redevelopment infeasible. Mixed remedial technologies were employed to reduce the cost of remediation while meeting regulatory contaminant levels that are protective of human health and the environment. The most heavily impacted soils (containing greater than 95 percent of the contaminant mass) were excavated and treated onsite by the addition of calcium oxide and lime kiln dust coupled with physical mixing. Treated soils were reused onsite as part of the redevelopment. Residual soil and groundwater contamination was treated via in situ injections of emulsified oil to enhance anaerobic biodegradation, and emulsified oil/zero‐valent iron to chemically reduce residual contaminants. Engineering (cap) and administrative (deed restriction) controls were used as part of the final remedy. The remedial strategy presented in this article resulted in a cost reduction of 50 percent of the initial remedial cost estimate. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A Practical Guide to Estimating Cleanup Costs

Cost estimates are frequently developed to evaluate hazardous‐waste‐site cleanup options in support of a site investigation, remedy selection decision, or assessment of environmental liabilities. The accuracy of the cost estimate depends largely on the quality of the information available at the time it is prepared. This article presents a practical guide to developing a cleanup cost estimate. It includes information on how to document assumptions, use the latest technical resources, and perform basic adjustments to account for uncertainty and the time value of money. The content is based upon a recent guidance document issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers entitled A Guide to Developing and Documenting Cost Estimates during the Feasibility Study (USEPA, 2000). © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Team approaches to the development of innovative technologies and processes to facilitate remediation

The enactment of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) created a complex liability scheme for owners, operators and prospective purchasers of contaminated properties, particularly brownfields. As the program developed, liability issues related to contiguous property, prospective purchasers, and no further action determinations became barriers to brownfield property redevelopment. The national effort on the cleanup and redevelopment of brownfield sites took on new emphasis with the passing of the federal “Small Business Liability Protection and Brownfields Revitalization Act” in January 2002. This new law provides liability clarifications as well as funding to facilitate the cleanup of brownfield sites. President Bush stated in his 2003 State of the Union address, “In this century, the greatest environmental progress will come about not through endless lawsuits or command‐and‐control regulations, but through technology and innovation.” The subject of this article is the Interstate Technology Regulatory Commission's Brownfield team, its current initiative, goals, and areas of special focus. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Treatment technologies for 1,4‐Dioxane: Fundamentals and field applications

1,4‐Dioxane is a synthetic industrial chemical frequently found at contaminated sites where 1,1,1‐trichloroethane was used for degreasing. It is a probable human carcinogen and has been found in groundwater at sites throughout the United States. The physical and chemical properties and behavior of 1,4‐dioxane create challenges for its characterization and treatment. It is highly mobile and has not been shown to readily biodegrade in the environment. In December 2006, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation (OSRTI) prepared a report titled “Treatment Technologies for 1,4‐Dioxane: Fundamentals and Field Applications.” The report provides information about the chemistry of dioxane, cleanup goals, analytical methods, available treatment technologies, and site‐specific treatment performance data. The information may be useful to project managers, technology providers, consulting engineers, and members of academia faced with addressing dioxane at cleanup sites or in drinking water supplies. This article provides a synopsis of the US EPA report, which is available at http://cluin.org/542R06009 . © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Expediting sustainable brownfields redevelopment by applying Triad using the membrane interface probe

Redevelopment and reuse plans are often based upon an expedited delineation and remediation life cycle, since delayed reuse usually has economic consequences. It has also become increasingly important to utilize sustainable practices to achieve investigation and remediation goals. In this article, the Triad approach is used to expedite the delineation of a source area within a municipal landfill to complete the remedial effort prior to construction of an urban civic center. The Triad approach uses the three elements of systematic project planning, dynamic work strategy, and real‐time measurement to expedite site characterization (Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council, 2003). In this article, the Triad sampling strategy consisted of two phases. The first phase included in situ screening of soil and groundwater using the membrane interface probe (MIP), and the second phase included confirmatory sampling via vertical profiles in the soil and groundwater. This study found that, using the MIP in a dynamic sampling strategy, a critical element of the Triad approach, combined with the proper placement of confirmatory samples, significantly reduced overall project cost and will expedite the site redevelopment. The use of the Triad approach also contributed to the integration of green and sustainable practices into the project. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Understanding and Managing Indoor Air Exposure Assessments at RCRA Sites

The 2000 RCRA National Conference was conducted August 15‐17, 2000, in Washington, D.C., to allow state and federal authorities to review regulatory issues associated with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) program. One of the RCRA reform issues discussed at the conference included the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) Environmental Indicators (EI). EIs have been designed to provide clarity in cleanup objectives and spur progress towards meeting the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) national RCRA cleanup goals. This article focuses on the human exposure indicator and, more specifically, on indoor air exposures and how to assess whether such exposure is actually occurring. While indoor air exposure can be a critical component of the human exposure scenarios, realistic predictions of the exposures are difficult to produce. This article provides an overview of the regulatory issues related to the indoor air exposure pathway. It also discusses the use of modeling in criteria development and risk evaluation and presents a case study of how the USEPA wants the modeling to occur, and an opinion of where this RCRA reform issue is heading and how to evaluate indoor air exposures.     

Transuranic waste remediation in Idaho: Pit 9, failed contracts,and lawsuits

The U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE) remediation responsibilities include its Idaho National Laboratory. In 1989, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency placed the Idaho site on its National Priority List for environmental cleanup. The site's contamination legacy from operations included inactive reactors and other structures, spent nuclear fuel, high‐level liquid radioactive wastes, calcined radioactive wastes, and transuranic wastes. Documents governing cleanup include a 1995 Settlement Agreement between the US DOE and the US Navy as responsible parties, and the State of Idaho. The Subsurface Disposal Area contains buried transuranic wastes, lies above the East Snake River Plain Aquifer, and could be the “site's most nettlesome cleanup issue,” according to an outside observer. This article describes the technical and legal difficulties that have been encountered in remediating this area. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Practical Perspectives of 1,4‐Dioxane Investigation and Remediation

1,4‐Dioxane (dioxane) is a contaminant of emerging concern that is classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a likely human carcinogen. Dioxane has been used as a minor or major ingredient in many applications, and is also generated as an unwanted by‐product of industrial processes associated with the manufacturing of polyethylene, nonionic surfactants, and many consumer products (cosmetics, laundry detergents, shampoos, etc.). Dioxane is also a known stabilizer of chlorinated solvents, particularly 1,1,1‐trichloroethane, and has been commonly found comingled with chlorinated solvent plumes. Dioxane plumes at chlorinated solvent sites can complicate site closure strategies, which to date have not typically focused on dioxane. Aggressive treatment technologies have greatly advanced and are clearly capable of achieving lower parts per billion cleanup criteria using ex situ advanced oxidation processes and sorption media. In situ chemical oxidation has also been demonstrated to effectively remediate dioxane and chlorinated solvents. Other in situ remedies, such as enhanced bioremediation, phytoremediation, and monitored natural attenuation, have been studied; however, their ability to achieve cleanup levels is still somewhat questionable and is limited by co‐occurring contaminants. This article summarizes and provides practical perspectives on dioxane analysis, plume stability relative to other contaminants, and the development of investigation tools and treatment technologies.     

Hanford remediation at 20 years: A glass half‐empty

The U.S. Department of Energy's (US DOE's) responsibilities for its former national nuclear weapons complex include remediation of the Hanford Site in Washington State. In 1989, the site's primary mission shifted from nuclear weapons material production to cleanup of the extensive radioactive and chemical contamination that represented the production legacy. Cleanup is governed by the Tri‐Party Agreement (TPA), between the US DOE, as responsible party, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Washington State Department of Ecology, as joint regulators. Nearly 20 years have passed since the TPA was signed, but the Hanford remediation is expected to require decades longer. This article covers the cleanup progress to date and challenges that remain, particularly from millions of gallons of highly radioactive liquid wastes and proposals to bring new wastes to Hanford. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Soil washing for volume reduction of radioactively contaminated soils

The Office of Radiation and Indoor Air of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has demonstrated a soil washing plant for the treatment of radioactively contaminated soils from two Superfund sites in New Jersey. The plant employs unit operations that are widely used in the processing of minerals and coal. These operations were examined and tested to determine how they would apply to volume reduction of these contaminated soils. In this context, they are considered to be innovative candidates for remediation of other sites with large volumes of soil contaminated with low-level radioactivity. Laboratory testing of soil characteristics and behavior in unit processes is used to assess the applicability of volume reduction/chemical extraction (VORCE) technology to specific sites.     

A Slice of Guidance Provides Some Insight to Addressing Contaminated Sediments

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued guidance to improve cleanup risk management decisions at sites involving contaminated sediments. The guidance is titled Principles for Managing Contaminated Sediment Risks at Hazardous Waste Sites and is important because sediment cleanup decisions are often very technical and complex. While the guidance is not a step‐by‐step “how to” document, it does provide the framework for risk‐based decision making and national consistency. Although it does not answer the more technical questions associated with remediation, it will likely provide site managers with greater certainty related to their decisions and help determine what questions need to be asked for many complex issues. Additional and forthcoming EPA reports, seminars, and products will be useful in building upon this framework. This article provides an overview of the risk management principles presented in the guidance. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Using pneumatic fracturing extraction to achieve regulatory compliance and enhance voc removal from low-permeability formations

The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy (NJDEPE) has been developing cleanup regulations that focus on remediation, rather than extended delineation, and on integrating regulatory requirements with technological developments. To this end, the NJDEPE, under the regulatory aegis of the Environmental Cleanup and Responsibility Act (ECRA), is monitoring an innovative treatment technology pilot test at a TCE-contaminated ECRA site in Hillsborough, New Jersey. The purpose of the study is to determine the applicability of pneumatic fracturing extraction (PFE) as a source-removal technique for extracting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) trapped informations with low permeability. The technology being pilot tested is pneumatic fracturing extraction, a process for enhancing permeability to promote in-situ removal and treatment of VOCs. The patented process uses high-pressure air injected into an isolated subsurface zone at controlled rates and pressures. At a critical point, the geologic material ruptures, and fractures are created that radiate outward from the fracture location. At the pilot test site, formation air flow was increased from 400 percent to 700 percent. PFE is a key component of the overall remediation strategy at the Hillsborough site. Consistent with proposed NJDEPE regulations, a ground-water pump-and-treat system will be installed for plume migration control. Once the pump-and-treat system has been established and shown to be effective, a more aggressive source removal program will be implemented using PFE. This program will include construction of a vadose zone PFE system and evaluation of the use of pneumatic fracturing to remove saturated zone residual dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPL). Preliminary calculations suggest that if source zone concentrations can be reduced to 10 ppm of TCE, then TCE groundwater concentrations may be reduced to background levels at the property boundary compliance points.     

The maturing of the Triad approach: Avoiding misconceptions

Misunderstandings and misconceptions have arisen as the Triad approach has gained wider application. The Triad initiative's ability to catalyze second‐generation cleanup practices will be hampered if inaccurate or incomplete assumptions create persistent confusion about what Triad is or how it works. This article has been prepared by the multi‐agency workgroup responsible for articulating the Triad approach and coordinating national Triad efforts. It serves to address some misunderstandings about key Triad concepts. As an aid to those wishing to learn more, a new Web site (the Triad Resource Center, http://www.triadcentral.org) and a new Triad reference document from the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) are introduced as sources of explanatory information supporting the Triad approach. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Nature,frequency, and cost of environmental remediation at onshore oil and gas exploration and production sites

This article quantifies the nature, frequency, and cost of environmental remediation activities for onshore oil and gas operations, as determined from over 4,100 environmental remediation cases in Texas, Kansas, New Mexico, and Colorado. For the purpose of this article, “remediation'' refers to cleanup efforts that entail longer‐term site characterization, monitoring, and remedial action beyond the initial spill cleanup or emergency response stage. In addition, data are also presented regarding short‐term spill cleanup activities in two of the four states. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Systematic planning for Triad projects

This article examines specific systematic planning steps that can be used for designing and controlling Triad projects. Triad work strategies act to limit decision uncertainty, expedite schedules to meet project milestones, and reduce costs associated with cleanup activities. As a result, the Triad approach is rapidly increasing in popularity. Good project planning has always been seen as the cornerstone of successful Triad projects. However, the specific steps in the systematic planning process have not been extensively published. Demands of Triad projects, which attempt to make maximum use of innovative technologies and sequencing of activities in a learn‐ as‐you‐go framework, put new demands on regulators and project managers alike. Specific activities and relationships are identified to assist project managers with dynamic work strategies and real‐time measurements to support improved decision making. These include: assembly of stakeholders, a core technical team, and key decisions; development and refinement of a site model; use of demonstrations of methods applicability; development of dynamic work strategies and project sequencing; real‐time data management assessment and presentation; and unitized procurement of technologies and services. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Rocky Flats,plutonium, and controversy: Citizen activists provide institutional memory

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) selected Rocky Flats, east of the Rocky Mountains, as the site to fabricate “plutonium pits,” triggers for H‐bombs, and operations began in 1952. Press reports revealed the plant's connection to atomic weapons in 1956. Denver is downwind and “downslope” by about 16 miles. As western suburbs moved closer to Rocky Flats over time, plant accidents sent plutonium and other contaminants offsite. In 1989, armed agents of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation raided the facility, and the plant operator, Rockwell International, subsequently pleaded guilty to criminal environmental violations. By this time, the U.S. Department of Energy had inherited responsibility for Rocky Flats and atomic weapons production. In 1993, the primary mission at Rocky Flats became cleanup of contamination from plutonium and other hazardous substances. Under Energy's “Accelerated Cleanup” plan, remediation was certified complete in 2005 by the Department's cleanup regulators, EPA, and the Colorado Department of Public Health. But planned uses for the “buffer zone” around the facility's central industrial area, and for off‐site areas continued to generate public controversy. This article examines the controversy and reports on general “stewardship” concepts for long‐term waste management.