Overcoming barriers to the implementation of alternative fuels for road transport in Europe

The success of implementing alternative fuels for road transport depends on their cost, performance and reliability. This paper focuses on the use of natural gas and LPG, hydrogen and biofuels in Europe. A brief presentation is given of their technical development status, their market potential, and barriers to their implementation in various market segments. Some market barriers are common to many new technologies, and can be overcome through adequate policy measures at European level. Generally, a combination of policies is required, and a number of supporting measures increase their effectiveness. The following policies affecting energy use in transport are discussed: market incentives, policies targeting technology and vehicle efficiency, and overall system improvement.     

Alternative future environmental regulatory approaches for petroleum refineries

Recently, many industrial, regulatory, and community leaders have expressed concern that the current environmental regulatory structure disregards multimedia environmental impacts, provides few incentives to develop and use new technologies, and fails to consider site-specific conditions. For the US petroleum refining industry, faced with the need to produce higher-quality fuels from poorer-quality feedstocks, such criticisms are expected to increase. This article offers two alternative environmental regulatory approaches for existing petroleum refineries to use in the future. These alternative approaches are multimedia in scope, provide for new technology development and use, and allow flexibility in the means for meeting environmental goals. They have been reviewed and critiqued by various stakeholders, including industry representatives, regulators, and local and national community and environmental organizations. The integration of stakeholder comments and findings of ongoing national and international regulatory reinvention efforts in the development of these approaches positions them for potential use by other industries in addition to petroleum refineries.     

Advances in air pollution control for vessels in China

Vessel emissions have contributed a great deal to air quality deterioration in China. Hence,the Chinese government has promulgated a series of stringent emission regulations. It is in this context that vessel emission control technology research is in full swing. In particular,during the 13th Five-Year Plan, the air pollution control technology of vessels has greatly improved. Vessel emission control has followed two main governance routes: source emission reduction and aftertreatment technology...     

碳中和下水泥行业低碳发展技术路径及预测研究

为探究水泥行业的碳中和实现路径,从我国的国情出发,结合水泥行业生产特点,对水泥行业未来低碳发展进行了预测. 结果表明:①在碳中和背景下,水泥行业仍会存在约2×108~3×108 t的CO₂排放,产能减量是主要的CO₂减排手段,结合现阶段我国较低的水泥集约化程度和较短的熟料生产线服役年限,产能减量政策的推荐和实施应在合理的规划和政策下推进,低碳技术的发展仍是实现碳中和的关键. ②通过能效提升节能技术可实现CO₂减排约1.19×108 t/a. ③未来在替代原燃料来源、种类及替代率得到全面提升的情况下,原燃料替代技术可基本实现行业10%的CO₂减排量. ④目前,低碳水泥每年产量不足水泥总产量的5%,未来仍需通过产品技术创新,提高其生产及使用占比. ⑤CCUS (CO₂捕集、利用与封存)技术是水泥行业实现碳中和的必要路径,混凝土固碳、钙循环等在水泥行业具有典型行业优势的技术可与生产工艺紧密结合,成为未来水泥行业CCUS技术的重要发力点. 研究显示:结合水泥行业CO₂减排预测及技术路径分析,短期内我国水泥行业降碳主要思路为控制源头排放,包括流程智能化、余热利用、原燃料替代和产业结构调整等路径,实现碳达峰及CO₂减排;中期随着生产线服役年限临近及低碳水泥制备技术的发展,支撑行业碳的大幅削减;后期通过CCUS、富氧燃烧、可再生能源利用等技术来实现水泥行业碳中和的目标.      

Modern Biomass Conversion Technologies

This article gives an overview of the state-of-the-art of key biomass conversion technologies currently deployed and technologies that may play a key role in the future, including possible linkage to CO₂ capture and sequestration technology (CCS). In doing so, special attention is paid to production of biofuels for the transport sector, because this is likely to become the key emerging market for large-scale sustainable biomass use. Although the actual role of bio-energy will depend on its competitiveness with fossil fuels and on agricultural policies worldwide, it seems realistic to expect that the current contribution of bio-energy of 40–55 EJ per year will increase considerably. A range from 200 to 300 EJ may be observed looking well into this century, making biomass a more important energy supply option than mineral oil today. A key issue for bio-energy is that its use should be modernized to fit into a sustainable development path. Especially promising are the production of electricity via advanced conversion concepts (i.e. gasification and state-of-the-art combustion and co-firing) and modern biomass derived fuels like methanol, hydrogen and ethanol from ligno-cellulosic biomass, which can reach competitive cost levels within 1–2 decades (partly depending on price developments with petroleum). Sugar cane based ethanol production already provides a competitive biofuel production system in tropical regions and further improvements are possible. Flexible energy systems, in which biomass and fossil fuels can be used in combination, could be the backbone for a low risk, low cost and low carbon emission energy supply system for large scale supply of fuels and power and providing a framework for the evolution of large scale biomass raw material supply systems. The gasification route offers special possibilities to combine this with low cost CO₂ capture (and storage), resulting in concepts that are both flexible with respect to primary fuel input as well as product mix and with the possibility of achieving zero or even negative carbon emissions. Prolonged RD&D efforts and biomass market development, consistent policy support and international collaboration are essential to achieve this.     

Biological hydrogen production from organic wastewater by dark fermentation in China: Overview and prospects

Biological hydrogen production by dark fermentation is an important part of biological hydrogen production technologies. China is a typical developing country that heavily relies on fossil fuels; thus, new, clean, and sustainable energy development turns quite urgent. It is delightful that Chinese government has already drawn up several H₂ development policies since 1990s and provided financial aid to launch some H₂ development projects. In this paper, the research status on dark fermentative hydrogen production in China was summarized and analyzed. Subsequently, several new findings and achievements, with some of which transformed into scale-up tests, were highlighted. Moreover, some prospecting coupling processes with dark fermentation of hydrogen production were also proposed to attract more research interests in the future.     

Developing biofuels industry in small economies: Policy experiences and lessons from the caribbean basin initiative

With increasing concerns about rising energy demand and cost, diminishing oil reserves, and climate change, Central American and Caribbean (CAC) nations have the opportunity to become producers of low-carbon sustainable biofuels for domestic consumption and foreign exchange earnings. While the region has a number of comparative advantages for developing a vibrant biofuels sector, including favorable climate and significant agricultural experience, the experience under the favorable Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) has exposed significant technical and non-technical barriers that must be overcome. Using information compiled through interviews with industry executives, government policy makers and civil society stakeholders, we provide a critical analysis of this experience focusing on non-technical barriers to investment. Survey results suggest that political uncertainty, poor regulatory frameworks, and lack of institutional commitment and business incentives are the main non-technical barriers. Having laid out the challenges, we propose potential policy positions to stimulate growth of the regional biofuels sector. Results point to the need to prioritize enhancing national legislation, developing risk prevention plans, creating supply and demand side incentives and increasing multilateral collaboration. While these findings are derived from the Caribbean Basin experience, they may also be applicable to small economies in other regions that are considering policies for biofuels industry development.     

Biofuels: Thermodynamic sense and nonsense

Much of the current enthusiasm for biofuels appears to ignore basic thermodynamic and other constraints.The fundamental problem with growing fuel is that combustible plant matter is almost invariably solid, while the major demand for energy at present is in the form of gas or liquid fuels. All current conversion processes are of low efficiency even for the convertible parts of the plant. For example the energy which could be obtained from burning a kilogram of wheat grain is about twice that available from the ethanol into which it can be converted by fermentation. Furthermore, all current liquid fuel processes can use only part of the plant.This paper highlights biofuel technologies which make sense, such as co-firing straw with coal in power stations, and those which because of thermodynamic considerations are nonsense, such as making ethanol from grain in Europe or from maize in the USA.Since arable land is a scarce resource in most of Europe, locally grown biofuels are unlikely to become a major replacement for fossil fuels. Strategies which can help to maximise this contribution are suggested, and promising, emerging technologies are highlighted.     

汽车代用燃料及应用前景

介绍了已经开发使用的代用燃料氢气，甲醇，乙醇，新配方汽油，天然气，液化石油气，电动汽车等，并对代用燃料车和汽油车的环境安全性，成本，能耗消耗等方面作了比较，指出天然气，液化石油气是当前最有前途的代用燃料。     

个人乘用车用可替代燃料与我国未来的选择

个人乘用车排放量占道路交通运输二氧化碳(CO2)排放量的三分之一。因此,逐步实现其燃料由传统石化燃料汽柴油向新能源转变是交通运输行业低碳减排和绿色发展的重要抓手之一。本文对当前可供个人乘用车使用的4大类新能源即生物燃油、燃料乙醇、氢和电的属性,特别是其CO2减排效果和使用成本进行了分析和对比,并对新能源加注(充电)设施在欧盟和美国的布局战略和实施成果进行了介绍。结合欧美的实践和中国的实际,本文提出了未来个人乘用车用可替代燃油布局的建设,建议我国直接从传统石化汽油跨越至氢和/或电,并将其作为未来个人乘用车的燃料。     

Algal biofuel production and mitigation potential in India

Energy and energy services are the backbone of growth and development in India and is increasingly dependent upon the use of fossil based fuels that lead to greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and related concerns. Algal biofuels are being evolved as carbon (C)-neutral alternative biofuels. Algae are photosynthetic microorganisms that convert sunlight, water and carbon dioxide (CO₂) to various sugars and lipids Tri-Acyl-Glycols (TAG) and show promise as an alternative, renewable and green fuel source for India. Compared to land based oilseed crops algae have potentially higher yields (5?C12 g/m²/d) and can use locations and water resources not suited for agriculture. Within India, there is little additional land area for algal cultivation and therefore needs to be carried out in places that are already used for agriculture, e.g. flooded paddy lands (20 Mha) with village level technologies and on saline wastelands (3 Mha). Cultivating algae under such conditions requires novel multi-tier, multi-cyclic approaches of sharing land area without causing threats to food and water security as well as demand for additional fertilizer resources by adopting multi-tier cropping (algae-paddy) in decentralized open pond systems. A large part of the algal biofuel production is possible in flooded paddy crop land before the crop reaches dense canopies, in wastewaters (40 billion litres per day), in salt affected lands and in nutrient/diversity impoverished shallow coastline fishery. Mitigation will be achieved through avoidance of GHG, C-capture options and substitution of fossil fuels. Estimates made in this paper suggest that nearly half of the current transportation petro-fuels could be produced at such locations without disruption of food security, water security or overall sustainability. This shift can also provide significant mitigation avenues. The major adaptation needs are related to socio-technical acceptance for reuse of various wastelands, wastewaters and waste-derived energy and by-products through policy and attitude change efforts.     

Life cycle analysis and choice of natural gas-based automotive alternative fuels in Chongqing Municipality,China

Road transport produces significant amounts of emissions by using crude oil as the primary energy source. A reduction of emissions can be achieved by implementing alternative fuel chains. The objective of this study is to carry out an economic, environmental and energy (EEE) life cycle study on natural gas-based automotive fuels with conventional gasoline in an abundant region of China. A set of indices of four fuels/vehicle systems on the basis of life cycle are assessed in terms of impact of EEE, in which natural gas produces compressed natural gas (CNG), methanol, dimethylether (DME) and Fischer Tropsch diesel (FTD). The study included fuel production, vehicle production, vehicle operation, infrastructure and vehicle end of life as a system for each fuel/vehicle system. A generic gasoline fueled car is used as a baseline. Data have been reviewed and modified based on the best knowledge available to Chongqing local sources. Results indicated that when we could not change electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles into commercial vehicles on a large scale, direct use of CNG in a dedicated or bi-fuel vehicle is an economical choice for the region which is most energy efficient and more environmental friendly. The study can be used to support decisions on how natural gas resources can best be utilized as a fuel/energy resource for automobiles, and what issues need to be resolved in Chongqing. The models and approaches for this study can be applied to other regions of China as long as all the assumptions are well defined and modified to find a substitute automotive energy source and establish an energy policy in a specific region.     

European trade of forest products in the presence of EU policy

Increasing the share of renewable energy is of principal concern for the EU energy policy. A number of policies have been adopted, and, in part, been implemented by the EU member countries. An increasing share of renewable energy implies an increasing utilisation of biofuels in general and of forest-based biomass in particular. However, in the EU, the endowment and uses of forest-base biomass are diverse suggesting that an increasing trade would become necessary in order to cost effectively increase the utilisation of forest-based biomass. The purpose of this study is to, in the presence of EU energy policy, quantify and analyse possible trade levels for forest fuels in the EU. Particularly, the consequences on trade after implementing the White Paper and the RES-E Directive are analysed. Investigating the European trade in forest fuels is important for understanding how industry sectors in the EU will be affected by the policies. The results suggest that the implementation of the White Paper and the RES-E Directive will increase the trade in forest fuels, resulting in total trade increases of up to 67 percent. Furthermore, the national net trading levels are possible to derive. Depending on policy implementation the results differ – a country that was net importing given the White Paper implementation can instead be net exporting when applying the RES-E Directive. The fact that the policy implementations will increase the trade may mitigate potential industry problems to secure the needed inputs. On the other hand, the integration of countries increases the possibility for some industries to increase their production even more, possibly strengthening any input scarcity problems. It is therefore not possible to generally conclude if a more integrated European forest fuel market, and hence an increased European forest fuel trade, will mitigate industry problems to secure their needed inputs or not.     

微生物法净化沼气的研究进展

在能源危机的背景下,作为重要生物能源之一的沼气已经越来越受到重视。沼气的应用目前已经不再局限于照明等传统用途。通过一系列的净化处理,沼气有了新的用途和价值,比如净化后并入天然气、作为汽车燃料等。微生物法处理沼气因其环境污染小、成本低和产生附加价值等优势成为比较热门的研究课题。文章主要对净化沼气中H2S和CO2的微生物分别进行了介绍并且对其诸多工艺中的关键影响因素进行了详细的阐述,结合现状分析提出了净化沼气中CO2和H2S的微生物在应用中存在的问题及其应用前景。     

Integrated environmental product innovation in the region of Munich and its impact on company competitiveness

This paper examines the impact of environmental innovations on company competitiveness of both the environment industry and related sectors in the region of Munich. The focus is on the drivers of these innovations and their respective effects on innovating companies. Not only innovations in the area of end-of-pipe technologies, but also the development of integrated products and production methods are examined. In a regional case study approach, a sample of 14 manufacturing and service companies in Munich (Southern Germany) was interviewed. Essentially, environmental innovation is driven by a mixture of factors internal and external to the firm: not only regulatory pressure, but also cost pressure, competitive advantages, technological lead and customer pressure are important drivers. Regulatory pushed innovations contribute to the competitive performance of sample companies in a similar way as environmental innovations which are carried out voluntarily. That would yield proof for the so-called Porter hypothesis which assumes that environmental legislation stimulates innovation and leads to “win–win” opportunities where simultaneously pollution is reduced and productivity increased.     

Product-service systems in the automotive industry: the case of micro-factory retailing

Solutions to the economic and environmental impacts of the automotive industry have largely focused on technological innovation at the level of products or processes. This paper argues that, in order to achieve sustainability, change processes must be undertaken at the functional and systemic level.The concept of product-service systems (PSS) represents a valuable opportunity to introduce such changes. PSS is predicated on new forms of product ownership, stewardship, design and producer–consumer interaction. The challenge now is to investigate ways in which the PSS concept might be introduced at the empirical level.The paper suggests that the adoption of micro-factory retailing (MFR) ideas offer a means of introducing such a system-level change in the automotive industry. MFR is based on novel approaches to vehicle design that facilitate the economic viability of small-scale localised manufacturing sites. It is argued that such an approach to vehicle production, allows the adoption of a full scale PSS at local levels. Furthermore, via aspects such as the unification of the commerce and manufacturing function, and the proximity of manufacturing and servicing sites to users, the MFR approach may also offer distinct advantages compared with prevailing visions of PSS.     

Advancing Towards a Hydrogen Energy Economy: Status,Opportunities and Barriers

Performance reliability advances and cost reductions have been achieved with hydrogen and fuel cell technologies in both the transportation and distributed energy sectors. This paper reviews the status of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, identifies key business and policy drivers for the hydrogen economy, critically examines key barriers to implementing the hydrogen economy, identifies and discusses key national initiatives to advance the hydrogen economy, and identifies and discusses key intergovernmental initiatives and activities to advance the hydrogen economy. Hydrogen and fuel cell technology advances, coupled with a reduction in costs and improvements in performance reliability, present new opportunities for developed and developing countries to achieve energy, economic and environmental security. Substantial national research and development investments in hydrogen production, storage, transport, end-use technologies (e.g., fuel cells), safety and public education underscore future opportunities. Intergovernmental bodies such as Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), International Energy Agency (IEA) and the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy (IPHE) provide a multilateral framework for development of a global hydrogen economy. While the pathway forward for the hydrogen economy is precarious alternative energy options offer substantially fewer public benefits.     

Product service systems in the automobile industry: contribution to system innovation?

This article investigates the actual and potential contribution that product service systems (PSSs) can make in moving beyond incremental technological improvements towards a focus on behavioural changes and system innovation in the automobile industry. It begins by discussing the means by which existing and planned PSS initiatives can be evaluated in terms of their contribution towards innovation at the system level in the automotive industry. Building on and expanding earlier work, it is suggested that they should be assessed against an expanded set of five key evaluative criteria including: evidence of ‘higher-order’ learning amongst stakeholders; changes in infrastructure and institutional practice; changes in vehicle design, manufacture and end-of-life management; changes in vehicle ownership structure; and changes in modes of producer–user interactions. Following this discussion, the article provides a structured overview of some current and planned PSS initiatives at the empirical level in the automotive industry. The identified initiatives are then assessed against the key evaluative criteria in an effort to reveal their actual or potential contribution to meeting the sustainability challenges of the automotive industry. Based on this exercise, it is argued that since most current initiatives do not unify these key elements of a PSS in a single coherent system they do not constitute ‘complete’ versions of PSS, and therefore, fail to deliver the full range of envisaged benefits in contributing towards system innovation. The article concludes by outlining some key areas for future research into potential strategies to address such challenges.     

Production of biofuels from microalgae

The production of biofuels from microalgae, especially biodiesel, has become a topic of great interest in recent years. However, many of the published papers do not consider the question of scale up and the feasibility of the various processes to be operated at the very large scale required if algal biofuels are to make a meaningful contribution to renewable fuels. All the steps in the process must also be very low cost. This paper discusses the unit processes required for algal biofuels production (i.e., growing the algae, harvesting, dewatering, extraction and conversion to biofuel) and their scalability. In many cases, especially in the lipid extraction step, little is known as yet as to the scalability and economic feasibility of the various processes proposed. We also highlight the key engineering and biological issues which must be resolved for the production of biofuels from microalgae to become an economic reality.     

Modularised eco-innovation in the auto industry

The article explores the integration of alternative drivetrain solutions in the automotive industry. The article includes an analysis of the structure of the conventional automotive value chain and presents four examples of alternative vehicle designs. The article concludes that the component sharing across drivetrain solutions such as the battery electric, the hybrid and the fuel cell system opens a window of opportunity for modular design strategies that may make integration into the otherwise locked conventional production system possible.