温室气体减排项目评价方法研究

阐述了温室气体减排技术选择的准则与优先领域,以及温室气体减排项目评价应包括的主要内容;对3类主要的温室气体减排项目——节能技术改造项目、新建提高能源转换或利用效率项目及能源替代项目,分别探讨了基准线的确定方法、减排量和增量减排成本的计算方法在这3个项目评价中的难点;介绍了温室气体间接减排项目评价方法;最后以张北风电场二期风电项目为例对全球环境效益进行评价。      

温室气体减排项目评估方法探讨

简要温室气体减排项目的由来，减排项目在我国的发展状况，及减排项目评估的重要性。具体论述了减排项目评估的方法，就基准方案的选择，减排量的计算，减排成本的计算方法进行了详细的讨论，并进行了具体项目的举例分析。     

垃圾焚烧发电项目碳排放核算与减排效应研究

采用IPCC国家温室气体清单指南法计算了合肥市某生活垃圾焚烧发电项目的碳排放,分析了项目碳减排效应,并给出了垃圾焚烧的减排路径。结果表明,该生活垃圾焚烧发电项目碳排放强度为398.89 kgCO₂e/t,其中焚烧过程碳排放为384.7 kgCO₂e/t,占比96.44%。塑料等含化石碳组分垃圾的碳排放占整个焚烧项目碳排放的92%以上,是主要排放源。项目通过替代垃圾填埋基准线排放为557.75 kgCO₂e/t,替代燃煤发电的基准线排放为385.73 kgCO₂e/t,综合净减排量为544.59 kgCO₂e/t,表明生活垃圾焚烧发电项目具有很好的减排效益。通过系统规范核算了焚烧发电项目温室气体排放的基础数据,为垃圾焚烧发电行业摸清碳排放底数、参与碳排放交易等提供支撑。     

污水处理过程中的温室气体减排探讨

文章对污水处理过程中温室气体的产生机理排放方式进行了总结,对温室气体减排的计算方法及CDM项目开发过程进行了分析,指出了水处理行业温室气体减排的重要意义及当前研究存在的主要问题。     

浅谈参与清洁发展机制的意义

清洁发展机制,是《京都议定书》中引入的三个灵活履约机制之一。由于发达国家减排温室气体的成本是发展中国家的几倍甚至几十倍。发达国家因此通过在发展中国家实施具有温室气体减排效果的项目,把项目所产生的温室气体减少的排放量作为履行《京都议定书》所规定的一部分义务。对清洁生产机制的理论和意义进行了简要的阐述和说明。     

珠江三角洲机动车排放控制措施协同效应分析

预测了2015年珠江三角洲机动车空气污染物和温室气体排放量,设计了6类单一控制、技术控制、结构控制以及综合控制措施的情景,并运用基准线年排放清单编制和协同效应坐标系法分析了污染物与温室气体减排的协同效应.结果表明,按目前机动车保有量增长趋势,2015年污染物和温室气体将以18%~120%的幅度增加;各控制措施下污染物和温室气体排放量均有下降,且均具有正向的协同效应,但减排的贡献差异较大.6类单一控制措施中淘汰黄标车和结构性控制措施分别对各污染物和温室气体的削减效果最明显,减排幅度均在40%以上,且正向协同效应突出,但相比其他措施,结构性控制措施实施难度大.     

温室气体自愿减排交易机制下氢氟碳化物减排项目方法学研究

本文基于碳减排效果质量要求,建立了温室气体自愿减排项目方法学可行性判断框架,结合我国氢氟碳化物（HFCs）相关政策要求、减排技术成熟度和成本、技术实施情况以及HFCs排放分布,分析了原有温室气体自愿减排交易机制中HFCs制冷剂相关减排方法学的适用性和开发新的HFCs减排方法学的可行性,建议废止或修订不适合我国国情的原有HFCs减排方法学,新开发工商制冷、家用空调和汽车空调制冷剂替代,探讨制冷剂回收利用/销毁以及减少工商制冷HFCs泄漏方法学,并建议将HFCs相关温室气体自愿减排交易项目的减排量纳入全国碳排放权交易市场的抵消机制,进一步调动对HFCs减排的积极性。     

城市交通大气污染物与温室气体协同控制效应评价

针对乌鲁木齐城市交通领域12项减排措施开展协同控制效应评估,构建空气污染物与温室气体协同减排当量(APeq)指标进行减排效果归一化,识别措施是否具有协同减排效果,并进一步计算单位APeq减排成本,从成本有效性角度对各项减排措施进行排序.研究结果表明,出租车、私家车油改气以及纯电动轿车替代汽油轿车3项措施不具有协同控制效应;而提高尾气排放标准、天然气公交替代柴油公交、提升小客车燃油经济性、油品升级、淘汰黄标车、发展轨道交通、引入快速公交等措施可以实现局地大气污染物与温室气体的协同减排.费用-效果分析表明,提高小客车燃油经济性的单位APeq减排成本最低,具有良好的成本有效性;而发展轨道交通虽然单位APeq减排成本较高,但总体减排效果较好.     

CDM项目温室气体减排成本的不确定性分析

以清洁发展机制(CDM)为背景,针对计算温室气体排放量和减排成本中存在的不确定性进行了MonteCarlo模拟研究,分析了不确定性变量是如何影响决策变量的.结论是:各类碳排放因子、碳排放量、碳减排成本、减排收益是相互关联而存在连锁影响的,其中的发电碳排放因子和煤炭开采释放的甲烷排放系数是主要的.这为进一步计算或估计存在的风险,从而为参与CDM谈判决策提供重要的决策参考.     

内蒙古清洁发展机制(CDM)项目现状分析及对策

清洁发展机制(Clean Development Mechanism,简称CDM)是《京都议定书》规定的3种温室气体减排途径之一,也是发展中国家唯一的参与温室气体减排的机制。本文以我国现阶段CDM项目发展现状为背景,具体针对内蒙古CDM项目现状及存在的问题(截止2010年9月7日)展开分析,提出内蒙古发展CDM项目的解决对策。     

Project-Based Emissions Trading: The Impact of Institutional Arrangements on Cost-Effectiveness

In this paper we demonstrate that the institutionalarrangement (or: design) of Joint Implementation (JI) and the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM) has a decisive impact on theircost-effectiveness. We illustrate our arguments by statistically analyzing thecosts from 94 Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilot phase projects aswell as by adjusting these data on the basis of simple mathematicalformulas. These calculations explicitly take into account the institutionaldifferences between JI (sinks, no banking) and the CDM (banking, no sinks)under the Kyoto Protocol and also show the possible effects on credit costsof alternative design options. However, our numerical illustrations shouldbe viewed with caution, because AIJ is only to a limited extentrepresentative of potential future JI and CDM projects and because creditcosts are not credit prices. Some of the main figures found in this study are:an average cost figure per unit of emission reduction for AIJ projects of 46dollar per ton of carbon dioxide equivalent ($/Mg CO₂-eq), anaverage potential JI credit cost figure which is lowered to 37$/Mg CO₂-eq by introducing banking and an average of 6$/Mg CO₂-eq per credit for potential low-cost CDM projects whichincludes sinks. However, at CoP6 in November 2000 in The Hague (TheNetherlands), the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change(FCCC) did not (yet) reach consensus on the institutional details of theproject-based mechanisms, such as the possible arrangement of early JIaction or the inclusion of sinks under the CDM.     

中国电力行业二氧化碳排放达峰路径研究

电力行业是我国最大的碳排放部门,碳排放量占全国碳排放总量的40%以上;同时,电力将是未来10年能源增长的主体,而这些新增用电与国计民生直接相关,属于刚性需求,是支撑我国经济转型升级和未来居民生活水平提高的重要保障. 电力行业未来新增需求压力巨大,其碳排放峰值及达峰速度将直接决定2030年前全国碳排放达峰目标能否实现. 统筹考虑社会经济发展、各部门用电需求、电源结构调整、发电标准煤耗变化等因素,采用基于情景分析的方法,开展电力行业碳排放趋势预测,识别碳减排的主要驱动因素,提出推动碳排放达峰的关键举措,为制定碳达峰目标背景下的电力行业碳排放控制路径提供参考. 结果表明:①通过积极措施,电力行业碳排放能够在2030年左右达峰,在不考虑热电联产供热碳排放时,于2028—2031年达峰,峰值为43.2×108~44.9×108 t,较2020年增加3.2×108~4.9×108 t;考虑热电联产供热碳排放,则达峰时间为2031—2033年,峰值为50.7×108~53.0×108 t,较2020年增加4.9×108~7.2×108 t. ②在电源结构不变的情况下,如到2030年降低2%左右的电力需求,达峰时间将提前4年左右. ③提速风光新能源发展是实现2030年前碳达峰的必然选择,到2030年,提高风光发电、核电、水电、生物质、气电发电装机容量及发电量、节能降耗措施等各项措施的减排贡献率分别为55.3%、10.6%、9.2%、7.6%、5.7%、11.5%. 研究显示,未来我国电力行业碳减排工作重点要聚焦于优化电源结构、推动形成绿色生产生活方式、提升用电效率、降低煤电机组能耗水平等方面.      

Carbon dioxide direct air capture for effective climate change mitigation based on renewable electricity: a new type of energy system sector coupling

Pathways for achieving the 1.5–2 °C global temperature moderation target imply a massive scaling of carbon dioxide (CO₂) removal technologies, in particular in the 2040s and onwards. CO₂ direct air capture (DAC) is among the most promising negative emission technologies (NETs). The energy demands for low-temperature solid-sorbent DAC are mainly heat at around 100 °C and electricity, which lead to sustainably operated DAC systems based on low-cost renewable electricity and heat pumps for the heat supply. This analysis is carried out for the case of the Maghreb region, which enjoys abundantly available low-cost renewable energy resources. The energy transition results for the Maghreb region lead to a solar photovoltaic (PV)-dominated energy supply with some wind energy contribution. DAC systems will need the same energy supply structure. The research investigates the levelised cost of CO₂ DAC (LCOD) in high spatial resolution and is based on full hourly modelling for the Maghreb region. The key results are LCOD of about 55 €/t_CO2 in 2050 with a further cost reduction potential of up to 50%. The area demand is considered and concluded to be negligible. Major conclusions for CO₂ removal as a new energy sector are drawn. Key options for a global climate change mitigation strategy are first an energy transition towards renewable energy and second NETs for achieving the targets of the Paris Agreement.

     

Environmental impacts of distributed energy systems—The case of micro cogeneration

Distributed generation in micro cogeneration systems, e.g. reciprocating or Stirling engines and fuel cells, is of increasing interest in the energy market. This paper investigates environmental impacts of micro cogeneration by carrying out a detailed life cycle assessment and an analysis of local air quality impacts of micro cogeneration systems.Most micro cogeneration systems are superior, as far as the reduction of GHG emissions is concerned, not only to average electricity and heat supply, but also to state-of-the art separate production of electricity in gas power plants and heat in condensing boilers. The GHG advantages of micro cogeneration plants are comparable to district heating with CHP. Under the assumption that gas condensing boilers are the competing heat-supply technology, all technologies are within a very narrow range. Looking at the GHG reduction potential on the level of a supply object (e.g. a single-family house) by modeling the operation with a CHP optimization tool, the achievable mitigation potential is somewhat lower, because the micro cogeneration systems do not supply the whole energy demand. Here, fuel cells offer the advantage of a higher power-to-heat ratio.Environmental impacts other than those related to climate and resource protection relate more specifically to technology. In addition to investigating the emissions side, analysis of the air quality situation of a residential area supplied by reciprocating engines was carried out. The analysis shows that for the selected conditions, the additional emission of NO_x due to the engines do not create severe additional environmental impacts.     

Preserving Environmental Integrity in standardised baselines: The role of additionality and uncertainty

The European Union EU project PROBASE hasexplored a range of possible multi projectstandardised benchmarks as a way ofencouraging projects under Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)by minimising transaction costs. The aim ofthis paper is to examine the environmentalintegrity of the use of standardisedbaselines and to explore the role ofadditionality. The environmental integritydepends on the uncertainty in emissionreductions, which was estimated bygenerating scenario baselines and comparingthese with the standardised baselines. Thishas allowed a comparison of selected multiproject baselines with the envelope ofuncertainty on the reductions. The projectsincluded a range of electricity supply,heat sector, cogeneration and methane(CH$_{4}$) projects in different countries. Theanalysis showed that the key uncertaintieswere in the technology fuel selection inthe baseline, the continued additionalityof the project emission reductions,uncertainties in some project emissions(e.g. spinning reserve emissions for wind)and data uncertainties. The effect on theestimation of reductions was in the range±12% to ±46% for the electricityprojects and from ±19% to ±57%for the heat and Combined Heat and Power CHP sector projects.Comparison with the envelope of uncertaintyfor the range of projects showed that multiproject electricity sector baselines whichhave been weighted or use high technologyperformance benchmarks (e.g. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD)can provide conservative estimates buttheir general nature can lead to variationsbetween countries. We would recommend thatthe country-specific context must be takeninto account so that standardised baselinesfor the electricity sector are generated onthe basis of country specificcharacteristics, the project type, andwhether it provides new or existing demand.The conservative scenario produced shouldthen be weighted. Whereas weightings havebeen applied to account for uncertaintiesor to bias towards renewables, we havesuggested a weighting factor of 25% on theelectricity baseline for large projectsbased on an analysis of the effect ofnon-additionality on emission reductionuncertainty. For heat projects, theappropriate benchmark is a technology/fuelbenchmark which is deemed relevant for theheat sector in that (part of the) country.Again we suggest that a weighted sectorbaseline is required to take account of theuncertainties. These recommendations applyto large projects only for a 10-yearcrediting lifetime.     

Methods for project-based mechanisms (JI/CDM)—relevance of IPCC inventory guidelines

A baseline for a project consists of estimates of annual emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) for a given time period without implementing the project. A general three-step process for determining the baseline is suggested. The emission reduction of the project is given by the difference between the baseline and the monitored annual emissions. A preferred method, direct measurement of the emission reduction, is possible for some types of projects. Methods for estimating the annual baseline emissions are not necessary for the latter category, and a definition of this project category is suggested. IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories categorise the emission sources so that only direct emissions from consumption of fuel and feedstock are calculated. There are thus no emission factors for indirect emissions (e.g. electricity consumption or km transported) or emission factors that depend on technology only, independent of consumption of fuel and feedstock. Technology-dependent emission factors may thus need to be developed for estimating indirect emissions and multi-project baselines. Consistency should be sought with the IPCC Guidelines when estimating annual baseline emissions and in monitoring project emissions to ensure comparability with the National Inventories.     

对县级发展热电联产的初步探讨

从地区资源优势、城市总体规划、热电联产的供需条件以及节能减排等方面对县级发展热电联产加以探讨。阐述了具备条件的县级应积极发展热电联产项目;根据当地生产陶瓷需要大量燃气以及解决非供暖期能源利用的瓶颈等问题,提出法库县发展热电联产要首选IGCC技术。     

CO2 Mitigation: On Methods and Parameters for Comparison of Fossil-Fuel and Biofuel Systems

The replacement of fossil fuels by biofuels could be an important means of reducing net carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission. An estimation of the CO₂ mitigation efficiency of biofuel systems depends on the method and assumptions used. Here, different parameters and methods are discussed for comparing fossil-fuel- and biofuel-based systems. Three parameters are suggested: the monetary cost, the primary energy cost and the biofuel cost of CO₂ mitigation. They are defined as the difference in monetary expenditure, primary energy use and biofuel use between the compared systems, divided by the difference in net CO₂ emission between the systems. Cogeneration and separate production of electricity and heat is then compared using these parameters and the methods of multi-functional products or subtraction. In both methods, either electricity or heat is regarded as the main product and the other is regarded as a by-product. The multi-functional method is preferable due to its transparency as both the main product and the by-product are part of the functional unit. Using heat as the main product illustrates the typical situation that the heat demand limits the use of cogeneration. When comparing systems the output from them should not differ. If the by-product is not fully, cogenerated part of the by-product has to be produced separately. A logical choice for producing this part of the by-product is to use a similar fuel and technology as used for cogeneration.     

上海市电力CO_2排放特征及减排途径分析

电力作为一种二次能源,不同发电方式和发电技术的电力CO2排放系数差别很大。研究发现,上海市2009年电力消费侧的CO2排放高于电力生产侧1 551万t,即上海市净调入电力的CO2排放为1 551万t,可见外来电CO2排放的正确测算对全市及各终端消费部门的CO2排放有重要影响。从排放系数来看,消费侧的CO2排放系数只有生产侧排放系数的81%,得益于外来电中可再生能源比例高于本地电力。2009年由于外来电的引入,上海市电力消费避免了178万t的CO2排放。就火力发电而言,上海市单位发电能耗和CO2排放略低于华东电网平均值,远高于世界先进水平,还有很大下降空间。基于以上研究,从提高火力发电的能效、发展可再生能源、发展分布式供能和其他新能源技术、建设智能电网等方面提出上海市减缓电力CO2排放的途径。     

UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol Clean Development Mechanism Baseline Construction for Vietnam National Electricity Grid

For projects under the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a baseline has to be set to allow calculation of the greenhouse gas emissions reductions achieved. An important obstacle to CDM project development is the lack of data for baseline definition; often project developers do not have access to data and therefore incur high transaction costs to collect them. The government of Vietnam has set up all necessary institutions for CDM, wants to promote CDM projects and thus is interested to reduce transaction costs. We calculate emission factors of the Vietnam electricity grid according to the rules defined by the CDM Executive Board for small scale projects and for large renewable electricity generation projects. The emission factors lie between 365 and 899 g CO₂/kWh depending on the specification. The weighted operating and build margin reaches 600 g for 2003, while grid average reaches 399 g. Using three-year averages, a combined build and operating margin of 705 g is calculated. We hope that these data facilitate CDM project development in the electricity supply and energy efficiency improvement in Vietnam.