Incentives for renewable energy in reformed Latin-American electricity markets: the Colombian case

Given the importance of renewable energy sources for reducing the threat of global climatic change without compromising economic development, this paper explores regulatory alternatives that may facilitate the introduction of renewable energy in the Colombian electricity market. The analysis is based on a simulation model of the electricity market that represents the behaviour of the agents involved, and their decision to invest according to proposed incentives. The possible expansion of renewable energy depending on different incentives is examined. This research is carried out in the Latin-American context, and accordingly we present the exploitation potential of renewable sources for electricity generation in the region. This paper shows how restructuring electricity markets, such as the Colombian and others in Latin America, may be an efficient means to promote the use of renewable energy.     

Rural electrification under liberal reforms: the case of Peru

Liberal reform programmes in developing countries were not designed with the need to extend electricity supplies to rural areas. This paper focuses on the Peruvian experience, examining the impact of electricity reform policies on the characteristics of rural electrification. In rural areas, electrification levels have traditionally been the lowest in the country – making them less or non-profitable for private firms. Only in 2002 did the government introduce a specific Rural Electrification Law, which was intended to promote electrification within the context of a liberalised market. This paper draws upon an analysis of both this piece of legislation and stakeholder interviews, indicating that there exists a need to look further into the evolving relationship between the private and public sectors and how it affects the rural poor. This study forms part of the RESURL international research project on renewable energy for sustainable rural livelihoods in developing countries, funded by the UK Government's Department for International Development (DfID).     

An environmental impact assessment of quantum dot photovoltaics (QDPV) from raw material acquisition through use

Some emerging technologies are expected to be pivotal for solving many of the environmental challenges faced today, especially those related to energy. However, many of these technologies may incur significant environmental impacts over their life cycle, while having environmental benefits during their use. This paper presents results of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a proposed type of nanophotovoltaic, quantum dot photovoltaic (QDPV) module. The LCA is confined to the stages of raw materials acquisition, manufacturing, and use. The impacts of QDPV are compared with other types of PV modules and energy sources - both renewable and nonrenewable. To provide a comprehensive comparative assessment, QDPV modules were compared with mature as well as emerging PV types for which data are available. Comparative assessment with other types of energy sources includes coal, oil, lignite, natural gas, diesel, nuclear, wind, and hydropower.QDPV modules may have the potential to overcome two current barriers of solar technology: low efficiencies and high manufacturing costs. If higher efficiencies are realized, QDPV modules could pave the way to large scale implementation of solar energy, helping nations move toward greater energy independence. On the other hand, candidate materials as quantum dots for solar cell applications are mostly compound semiconductors such as cadmium selenide, cadmium telluride, and lead sulfide which may be toxic and for which renewable options are limited. Toxic effects of these materials may be exacerbated by their nanoscale features.The LCA was carried out using the software SimaPro, and the Ecoinvent Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database supplemented with available literature and patent information. Our results indicate that while QDPV modules have shorter Energy PayBack Time (EPBT), lower Global Warming Potential (GWP), SO_x and NO_x emissions than other types of PV modules, they have higher heavy metal emissions, underscoring the need for investigation of emerging technologies, especially nano-based ones, from a life cycle perspective. QDPV modules are better in all impact categories assessed than carbon-based energy sources but they have longer EPBT than wind and hydropower and higher GWP.     

Socio-economic impacts of climate change on rural United States

Directly or indirectly, positively or negatively, climate change will affect all sectors and regions of the United States. The impacts, however, will not be homogenous across regions, sectors, population groups or time. The literature specifically related to how climate change will affect rural communities, their resilience, and adaptive capacity in the United States (U.S.) is scarce. This article bridges this knowledge gap through an extensive review of the current state of knowledge to make inferences about the rural communities vulnerability to climate change based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios. Our analysis shows that rural communities tend to be more vulnerable than their urban counterparts due to factors such as demography, occupations, earnings, literacy, poverty incidence, and dependency on government funds. Climate change impacts on rural communities differs across regions and economic sectors; some will likely benefit while others lose. Rural communities engaged in agricultural and forest related activities in the Northeast might benefit, while those in the Southwest and Southeast could face additional water stress and increased energy cost respectively. Developing adaptation and mitigation policy options geared towards reducing climatic vulnerability of rural communities is warranted. A set of regional and local studies is needed to delineate climate change impacts across rural and urban communities, and to develop appropriate policies to mitigate these impacts. Integrating research across disciplines, strengthening research-policy linkages, integrating ecosystem services while undertaking resource valuation, and expanding alternative energy sources, might also enhance coping capacity of rural communities in face of future climate change.     

Energy and environmental attitudes in the green state of Denmark: Implications for energy democracy,low carbon transitions,and energy literacy

This article investigates how a mix of energy-users from Denmark perceives energy and environmental issues such as the affordability of electricity and gasoline, the seriousness of climate change, and preferences for different energy systems. Its primary source of data is a pilot survey and energy literacy test distributed in English and Danish to 328 respondents spread across the country. The survey results are used to test four propositions about energy prices, being “green,” public knowledge and competence about energy issues, and self-sufficiency and sustainable technology. The data supports the propositions that Danes identify with “being green” and prefer national and local policies that endorse sustainable technology and being self-sufficient. However, the data also challenges the propositions that Danes would prioritize low energy prices and affordability as key energy concerns and that they are knowledgeable about energy and environmental issues. In this way, a problematic gap may exist between what many academic articles (and previous surveys) report Danish attitudes to be and what this study suggests they are. Given Denmark's ambitious low-carbon goals, these findings have clear relevance to other communities and countries seeking to decarbonize their own energy sectors.     

GIS and rural electricity planning in Uganda

Sustainable development is literally fuelled by the energy sector. In Uganda, the electricity sector has experienced dramatic market liberation in recent years. This reform was centred around the unbundling of the main government utility, Uganda Electricity Board (UEB), a monopoly divided into three companies created to introduce competition into the market. Market reform has also led to the creation of a regulatory body and a rural electrification fund with the aim of subsidising rural electricity investments. Through a multi-sectoral programme financed by the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Ministry of Energy is developing a Rural Electrification Master Plan to provide a more systematic tool for rural electricity investments. Unlike previous approaches, this plan is demand driven. This paper discusses the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the planning process for rural electrification. The aim is to identify patterns of demand and priority areas for investment. By creating a demand-side scenario, electricity can then be supplied to targeted areas. A cross-sectoral view is taken to examine the energy demand patterns using physical data and available country statistics, incorporated into a GIS master database. Based on geo-referenced data of population and existing infrastructure, the initial priority demand-side sectors targeted are education and health. An energy benefit point system is then applied to each sector based on local conditions and needs assessments. Their aggregated points then provide an indicator of energy demand distribution for electricity planning at district level. As a result of this preliminary work, specific areas could then be targeted for investment and optimised supply systems could be designed, which include off-grid renewable energy plants such as small-scale hydropower schemes.     

浅析青岛太阳能光伏发电发展的方向及推广对策

太阳能光伏发电是可再生能源应用的主要方向之一。作为适宜发展太阳能光伏发电的地区,青岛市政电网覆盖区外的诸多海岛具有较好的光伏发电推广应用前景;在市政电网成型地区,道路照明等公共设施用电、新建住宅小区、机关事业单位以及重点用能单位也是具有推广光伏发电的潜力。然而,目前存在的技术瓶颈、激励政策缺乏以及并网发电手续繁琐等因素制约了光伏发电的应用。通过推动光伏发电技术进步及产业发展,并在政策法规以及经济上给予更多鼓励支持,才能促进太阳能光伏发电快速、健康发展。     

Optimal subsidies for distributed photovoltaic generation: Maximizing net policy benefits

Distributed photovoltaic (PV) generation is a promising pathway for reducing carbon emission and meeting energy demands in electricity sector. Subsidies are essential to accelerate its deployment. This paper aims to study the optimal subsidy levels for distributed PV generation from the perspective of maximizing the net policy benefits (environmental and economic) by applying the principal–agent theory, which is a commonly used method of analyzing government incentive issues. Based on a detailed analysis of asymmetric information and of benefit conflicts between the government (the principal) and the investor (the agent), the optimal subsidy principal–agent model is established, in which the investor’s preference toward distributed PV generation is asymmetric and is described by a random variable. The equivalent model is then presented to obtain the optimal solutions, and a numerical example is provided to test the effectiveness of the model and to illustrate the implications of the solutions. The results show that high net policy benefits are directly influenced by a high investor preference. This emphasizes the importance for the government of improving the investor’s preference level and of eliminating asymmetric information to develop distributed PV generation and reduce subsidy costs. Additionally, lowering the market risk and enlarging the overflow value of distributed PV generation both contribute to subsidy cost savings. This paper offers policy makers an effective subsidy scheme to accelerate distributed PV generation development and will also be a useful reference for government to subsidize other renewable power systems to mitigate global climate and energy changes.     

Optimum autonomous photovoltaic solution for the Greek islands on the basisof energy pay-back analysis

Although autonomous photovoltaic (PV) systems are identified as renewable energy technologies able to satisfy the electrification needs of remote consumers, they are strongly accused of their life-cycle energy requirements. To support the specific systems' sustainable character one should be able to ensure minimum period of energy pay-back. In this context, an optimum sizing methodology is developed for stand-alone PV-battery systems in order to obtain configurations of minimum energy content. The proposed methodology is applied to three representative islands across the Greek territory and the results obtained are favourably compared with the up to now – commonly used – diesel-electric generator solution.     

变电站及其线路建设工程项目公众参与的重要性探讨

变电站及其线路建设因其跨度大,涉及众多的乡镇村或苏木的村民的利益,为使工程建设达到可持续发展的目标,听取不同层次人员的意见,尤其是听取线路经过的乡、镇政府(苏木)中公务员以及拆迁房、迁坟和占耕地村民的意见,是环评工作中极为重要且必不可少的一个环节.以"500 kV高新变--德岭变送电线路工程项目"的公众参与与实践为例,对公众参与过程中所面临的一些普遍问题进行探讨.     

The role of social, political, and economic interests in promoting state green electricity policies

State governments in the United States have adopted a number of policies to encourage the production of electricity from “green” energy sources. While these state-level policies have been shown to stimulate green electricity development, the rate at which such policies have been adopted by the states differs significantly. This paper examines the potential influence of a state's particular social, political, and economic interests on its propensity to adopt green electricity policies. We use an empirical model that combines various social, political and economic indicators as explanatory variables of a state's likelihood to adopt four specific green electricity policies: renewable portfolio standards, net metering rules, public benefits funds, and generation disclosure rules. Using binary logistics regressions, the results suggest that social interests, measured by the level of income, the level of education, and the degree of participation in environmental lobbying groups, are positively linked to the adoption of green electricity policies. Similarly, political interests as measured by the pro-environment voting by states’ representatives in the U.S. Congress, also play a positive role in the adoption of such policies.     

Renewable energy resources and technologies in Nigeria: present situation, future prospects and policy framework

Nigeria is endowed with abundant energy resources, both conventional and renewable, whichprovide her with immense capacity to develop an effective national energy plan. However, introduction of renewable energyresources into the nation's energy mix have implications on itsenergy budget. The national energy supply system has been projected intothe future using MARKAL, a large scale linear optimization model.However, this model may not be absolutely representative of the highlynon-linear future of renewable energy. Results of the model reveal that under onlya least cost constraint, only large hydro power technology is the prominentcommercial renewable energy technology in the electricity supply mix of thecountry. Despite the immense solar energy potentials available, solar electricity generation is attractive only under severeCO2 emissions mitigation of the nation's energy supply system. Similarly, the penetration of small-scale hydro power technology in theelectricity supply mix is favoured only under CO₂ emissionsconstraints. Due to economy of scale, large hydropower technology takes the lion share of all the commercial renewableenergy resources share for electricity generation under any CO₂emissions constraint. These analyses reveal that some barriers exist to thedevelopment and penetration of renewable energy resources electricity production in Nigeria's energy supplysystem. Barriers and possible strategies to overcome them arediscussed. Intensive efforts and realistic approachtowards energy supply system in the country will have to be adopted inorder to adequately exploit renewable energy resources and technologiesfor economic growth and development.     

Partnerships in creating agile sustainable development communities

The key to clean, renewable and healthy futures for society(s) can be seen in the need to consider how all infrastructure areas such as water, waste and transportation, energy are treated. And to focus attention on the emerging commercial technologies (such as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles) that will be available regionally and then globally within the next five to ten years. Planning and investing now for that future will prove to be prudent and cost effective. Public-private partnerships, known as “civic markets“ can create and provide “funds” such as public bonds along with private sector innovation and markets on the regional, state and national levels. Similar bond funds have been passed by the electorate in California, most recently for stem cell research (USA$3 billion). Public support to promote funding for sustainable communities has also been demonstrated with bond funds for water, forests and land preservation.“Agile energy systems” are flexible and adapt to change effectively and efficiently for economic, environmental and social benefits, the triple bottom line. However, there needs to be collaboration between the pubic and private sectors in creating them. Such civic markets can from new associations of communities, cities and nation-states that might be useful to plan public policies and create the “government market“ in terms of procurement and coordination of public resources for renewable energy on-site and central grid power generation. One suggestion is to form an “Association of Agile Energy Cities or communities.”     

Assessment of renewable energy potential and policy in Turkey – Toward the acquisition period in European Union

This paper aims to assess the renewable energy capacity of Turkey in order to consider main priorities in the energy policy of Turkey. In this paper, renewable energy potential and regulatory conditions are discussed in Turkey in comparison with European Union. The results of the study implemented within the framework of EnviroGRIDS project indicated a promising yet very susceptible future for the implementation of renewable energy power plants in Turkey. The forecasts have shown that the solar power potential utilization is becoming more significant after 2020. The projections for 2050 indicate that electricity consumption from small and medium renewable energy sources including solar and wind will constitute 15% of the total, whereas the solar thermal will constitute around 16%. Geothermal and other renewables will remain around 3%. According to the high demand scenario, in 2050 the share of hydropower in overall electricity generation will be 12%, followed by solar power at 7% and wind power at 3%. Additionally, renewable energy policy and regulations in Turkey and in EU are overviewed in this study. On the contrary to EU, the constant feed-in tariff amount does not consider capital investments of specific energy sources in Turkey that brings disadvantage to the implementation. However, new regulations published and currently applied should be accepted as milestones in acquisition period of Turkey in EU.     

Promoting energy efficiency financing and ESCOs in developing countries: mechanisms and barriers

Developing countries have tremendous potential to increase energy efficiency but face several barriers before the potential can be realised. A lack of access to appropriate financing mechanisms is one of the important barriers. Energy service companies (ESCOs), a market oriented mechanism to improve energy efficiency, had successful experiences in developed countries such as the USA and Canada, and developing countries such as South Korea. ESCOs are in nascent stage in many developing countries and face several barriers that include market, finance and institutional barriers, poor energy pricing policies, high transaction costs etc. Market development through active involvement of governments as a customer, information provider, and policy maker is required to promote ESCOs. Development of specialised energy efficiency financing windows in appropriate financial institutions, development of skills for energy efficiency project appraisal and design of specialised financial products are other measures to accelerate the diffusion of energy efficiency.     

从节能减排看新农村建设

通过具体实例诠释新农村节能减排的内涵,分析了制约节能减排的因素,即推进力度与政策不适应、资源能源的节能减排技术与实际情况不适应、节能减排的严峻形势与农村实际不适应、生态监察的力度与节能减排要求不适应等,提出了建立政策支持体系、执法监管体系、技术保障体系、舆论导向体系等四项推进措施,对社会主义新农村建设节能减排工作具有借鉴作用。     

Sustainable development in practice

The semi-annual European Environment Sustainable Conference in Aalborg, Denmark brought together from primarily Europe, but also other parts of the world. The Conference focused on sustainability but one panel focused on practical applications for public policy and private industry. The papers from this panel are presented in this special issue of the journal. They cover topics ranging from corporate sustainable programs to government plans including "feed in laws".Some papers are more academic oriented but clearly derived from practical political experiences such as those of the California energy crisis. These theories argue the need for "agile energy systems" whereby regions, cities and communities must have combinations of on-site or distributed energy generation like combined heat and power (CPH) along with central grid power generation. Finally, there is a clear message in all the papers that "market forces" alone do not develop, monitor or even provide "level playing fields" for communities. In short, there needs to be continuous "government" or public involvement in the sustainable communities.     

New CHP partnerships offering balancing of fluctuating renewable electricity productions

Combined heat and power (CHP) as well as intermittent renewable energy sources (RES) are key elements in future cleaner electricity production systems. This article presents solutions which will integrate fluctuating renewable electricity supplies, such as wind power, into electricity systems using small and medium-sized combined heat and power plants (CHP). Such solutions call for a new organisational setup of partnerships and software tools. The software tools will allow the new partnerships to offer services which are currently only offered by big power plants to electricity markets. The article presents recent results of the development and implementation of such partnerships and focuses on the methodologies and computer tools necessary in order to allow the partnerships to optimise their behaviour on the market. The use of such tools and methodologies makes groups of small CHP plants able to replace large power stations and, at the same time, allows for the integration of a higher share of RES in the electricity supply, resulting in a decrease in both fossil fuels and CO2 emissions.     

Toward prospective voluntary agreements: reflections from a hydrogen foresight project

There is substantial interest in promoting the emergence of a hydrogen-based energy economy. If successful, this would represent a policy-led, discontinuous transition away from existing fossil fuel-based systems. Such a move has few precedents and few policy tools exist to manage such a complex and uncertain endeavour. Furthermore, existing hydrocarbon energy systems can be considered Techno-Institutional Complexes (TIC), which have developed through the path dependent co-evolution of physical technologies and social institutions. These complexes have numerous structures that ensure their perpetuation and create important barriers to the implementation of alternatives like hydrogen-based systems. The authors explore the application of prospective voluntary agreements (PVA) as a policy tool/process that can help facilitate a move towards a hydrogen-based economy through foresight and negotiation. From this perspective, we look at the recent case of the Nordic Hydrogen Energy Foresight project for evidence.     

Solar- und Windenergie zum Pumpen von Wasser

Water pumping by means of wind and solar energy becomes more and more attractive by reason of increasing energy prices. Water supply for remote villages especially in developing countries needs hydraulic energy of about 1 to 50 kWh per day. The use of renewable energies like solar and wind seems to be technically successfull and has a good chance to be competitive with conventional energy sources like diesel or electricity in regions with mean wind speeds above 4–5 m/s or high insolation of about 5 kWh/day annual average.