Mercury-free gold mining technologies: possibilities for adoption in the Guianas

The rudimentary nature of small-scale gold mining activities often generates a legacy of extensive degradation and deplorable social conditions, both during and after activities have ceased. Small-scale mining usually involves the extraction of secondary gold from placer deposits (alluvial, colluvial or elluvial), which can be liberated and treated using gravity methods. In the Guianas, the most popular form of small-scale gold mining is referred to as “land dredging”, a combination of hydraulicking and suction dredging. This method requires application of large volumes of water for both mining and mineral processing; in most cases, there are no containment structures for the waste tailings generated. Mercury, a dangerous pollutant, is the preferred method employed by small-scale miners for gold recovery. Gold extraction using mercury is comprised of the following four stages: (1) amalgamation, (2) separation of amalgamation, (3) removal of excess mercury, and (4) burning of the remaining amalgam to produce a gold sponge. Mercury can be released into the environment at each stage, which makes the promotion of mercury-free alternatives imperative.Technical alternatives for small-scale gold mining, however, must be thoroughly evaluated, pre-tested, modified accordingly and successfully transferred. Moreover, technology must be inexpensive, relatively simple and easy to adapt, while allowing a rapid rate of return. WWF-Guianas is working with the regulatory agencies and other relevant stakeholders of the Guianas to reduce the environmental footprints caused by small-scale mining. The major aspects of this program are to develop the capacity and regulatory mechanisms within the local government, to promote mercury-free technology, and monitor mercury in the environment. This paper reviews the alternative technologies being investigated by the WWF-Guianas for use in the small-scale gold mining industry.     

Mercury balance in amalgamation in artisanal and small-scale gold mining: identifying strategies for reducing environmental pollution in Portovelo-Zaruma,Ecuador

The gold ore mined by artisanal and small-scale miners in Portovelo-Zaruma, Ecuador, is processed in custom mills. Miners can choose between Chilean-mill processing centers, where the ore is ground, concentrated and amalgamated, or “Chancha” Centers, where the whole ore is amalgamated. By weighing mercury before and after all unit operations involved in the amalgamation process, it was possible to determine mercury losses. Analyses in eight centers indicated that 51–59% of mercury introduced into the amalgamation process is recovered when miners squeeze the excess mercury. Around 29% of total mercury is lost when miners burn amalgam and gold is melted, and 15% is lost with the tailings. When only gravity concentrates are amalgamated, 1.4% of mercury entering the process is lost with tailings, whereas 29.5% is lost when the whole ore is amalgamated. Approximately 1.5 tonnes/annum of mercury is released in Portovelo-Zaruma, from which 70% is evaporated and 30% is released with tailings. Mercury-contaminated tailings are leached with cyanide in agitated tanks. A large majority of the processing centers dispose the final tailings with mercury and cyanide into the Calera River and Amarillo River. Mercury dissolved with cyanide likely becomes more bioavailable than metallic mercury. A campaign for reducing mercury emissions must focus on the use of individual retorts – mercury pollution control devices – and the elimination of whole ore amalgamation.     

Mill leaching: a viable substitute for mercury amalgamation in the artisanal gold mining sector?

Artisanal small-scale gold miners (ASM) occasionally employ whole ore amalgamation by adding mercury into ball mills to recover gold. In this process, 25–30% of the mercury added is lost to the environment. It is also inefficient less than 30% of gold is recovered. Amalgamation, followed by cyanidation, has been observed at many artisanal mining sites. This combination poses additional environmental and health consequences. Tests with ore samples from Talawaan, North Sulawesi, Indonesia indicate the possibility of replacing mercury by cyanidation in the ball mill, reaching gold extraction of 93% in 6 h of leaching. The gold in the Indonesian ore sample is fine and less than 8% of gold recovery was obtained with gravity concentration of the ore ground 80% below 0.25 mm, which is a reasonably fine grain size for artisanal gold operations. Replacing mercury addition with cyanidation in ball mills was implemented in one artisanal gold mining operation in Portovelo, Ecuador, achieving 95% of gold extraction in 8 h of mill leaching. This technique demonstrated a drastic improvement in gold recovery. It was found to be a simple, inexpensive technique well accepted by local miners. The results from laboratory and field tests are promising; however a thorough investigation into the socio-economic and environmental aspects of this presented alternative must be conducted prior to introduction.     

Strategies for reducing the environmental impact of reprocessing mercury-contaminated tailings in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector: insights from Tapajos River Basin,Brazil

Worldwide, the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) are extensive. Annual losses from mercury, which is used to amalgamate gold, are in the range of 1000 tonnes, and at advanced sites, there is the additional threat of cyanide contamination.Recent developments in The Brazilian Amazon, an area populated by 200,000 small-scale gold miners, have the potential to reduce these impacts considerably. In the locality of Garimpo Ouro Roxo, miners are presently using amalgamation and cyanidation in vat-leaching. Each cycle typically recovers 50% of the gold and lasts 20 days (per tank), consuming around 3300 kg NaCN/month. A new process has been developed and implemented in a pilot plant in this area, involving gravity concentration followed by cyanidation in a ball mill. Concentrate leaching is conducted with a PVC capsule filled with activated carbon inserted in the cyanide solution in the mill. The cycle takes less than 24 h and recovers up to 98% of the gold in the concentrate. The main advantages of wide adoption of this method, apart from a reduced gold recovery cycle and improved recovery, include possible phase out of amalgamation altogether, and marked reductions in cyanide consumption (from current 22,000 kg–980 kg annually).     

Clean artisanal gold mining: a utopian approach?

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) provides an important source of livelihood for rural communities throughout the world. These activities are frequently accompanied by extensive environmental degradation and deplorable socio-economic conditions, both during operations and well after mining activities have ceased. As gold is easily sold and not influenced by the instability of local governments, it is the main mineral extracted by artisanal miners. Mercury (Hg) amalgamation is the preferred gold recovery method employed by artisanal gold miners and its misuse can result in serious health hazards for miners involved in gold extraction, as well as for surrounding community inhabitants, who may be exposed to mercury via the food chain. The rudimentary techniques characteristic of ASM result in a number of occupational hazards, other although most risks are primarily attributed to machinery accidents and ground failure, such as landslides and shaft collapses.Several technologies and methods commonly utilized by large-scale mining operations can be downsized to smaller scale operations. However, the likelihood that miners will adopt these large-scale methods, or those developed specifically for ASM, depends upon some key factors. For an artisanal miner, these factors include: (1) increased or comparable simplicity, (2) quick recovery of the economic mineral, and (3) demonstrated financial gain. Other practical aspects, such as the availability of materials (chemicals, steel rods, piping, generators, etc), capital and operating cost requirements and access to technical support, also influence acceptance of new techniques.This article will review four inter-related areas: first, the limitations and benefits, for ASM, of a number of specific technologies; second, the role of Processing Centers in education, information dissemination and provision of “clean” services; third, benefits and challenges associated with formalization of ASM activities; and fourth, the contribution of ASM to the development of sustainability of communities, primarily through diversification of livelihoods. The appropriate application of technologies, particularly given the diversity of ASM communities around the world, will also be explored.     

Policies and regulations for Brazil’s artisanal gold mining sector: analysis and recommendations

In Brazil, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) produces in the range of 6 tonnes of gold (Au) per annum, and employs approximately 200,000 people. Most of this mining activity is in the Amazon region, where miners have been extracting gold for more than 40 years. In the Tapajos River Basin, assessments indicate that around 99% of miners operate without the environmental and mining permits required by law. This is a result of a combination of unrealistic or lack of proper policies and regulations, lack of political will, lack of infra-structure to enforce the existing regulations and lack of incentives to miners to comply with legal requirements.In this article, we analyze a group of 20 laws, decrees and resolutions in Brazil, focusing on how idiosyncrasies in these regulations reveal gaps between policy and reality in ASGM areas. Artisanal miners operate in vast and remote areas and the government lacks the resources (personnel, vehicles, information and materials) to enforce the laws. Our analysis emphasizes the need for creating new government commitments and identifying priority areas where government agents can focus their efforts.There is no single solution for the environmental, health, technical and socio-economic problems associated with ASGM. However, a realistic approach should consider improving the level of education of miners, creating government programs to provide technical assistance in the field, simplifying administrative procedures and ensuring adequate measures for enforcement.     

Origin and consumption of mercury in small-scale gold mining

Mercury (Hg) is used by small-scale gold miners in more than 50 developing countries, where the accompanied releases affect human health and the environment. The objectives of this paper are to summarize present use of Hg in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) worldwide, reveal the origin of part of the Hg used by the gold miners, and propose appropriate actions to reduce the resulting Hg emissions. Significant releases of mercury are associated with inefficient amalgamation techniques. Releases are estimated to range from 800 to 1000 tonne/annum. Of this total, approximately 200–250 tonne of Hg are released in China, 100–150 tonne in Indonesia, and 10–30 tonne each in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Philippines, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. Mercury usually enters these countries legally – typically imported from countries in the European Union – although in some cases and in some years (e.g., Indonesia, Venezuela, etc.), the reported imports of Hg are far below estimated consumption. Meanwhile, the EU, while gradually replacing Hg products and processes with more environmentally benign alternatives, paradoxically continues to produce virgin Hg at government-owned mines, further exacerbating a general global oversupply of Hg – evident from its historically low market price. Political leadership is needed to avoid the transfer of excess Hg, and related health and environmental risks from the EU to third countries. Otherwise, the present situation will continue or even worsen, with no oversight or control of the global Hg trade in which the transfer of excess EU Hg to artisanal miners is favoured by low Hg prices relative to gold prices.     

Exposure of aboriginal people to methylmercury due to gold mining in the Amazon, Brazil

ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＳｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｅａｒｌｙ 1980’ｓ,ｒａｐｉｄｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｓｉｎｇｏｌｄｍｉｎｉｎｇａｃｔｉｖｉｔｉｅｓｕｓｉｎｇｍｅｒｃｕｒｙａｍａｌｇａｍａｔｉｏｎｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｉｎｍａｎｙｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｉｎｇｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｍａｉｎｓｏｕｒｃｅｓｏｆｍｅｒｃｕｒｙｐｏｌｌｕｔｉｏｎ ,ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙｉｎｔｈｅＡｍａｚｏｎａｎｄｏｔｈｅｒｔｒｏｐｉｃａｌｒｅｇｉｏｎｓ(Ｍａｌｍ ,1990 ;Ｒａｍｅｌ,1996;Ｉｋｉｎｇｕｒａ,1996;Ｌａｃｅｒｄａ,…     

Cyanidation of mercury-rich tailings in artisanal and small-scale gold mining: identifying strategies to manage environmental risks in Southern Ecuador

In many countries, such as Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Venezuela and Zimbabwe, amalgamated tailings are leached with cyanide to recover remaining gold. This paper describes a recently completed study conducted at seven gold processing centers in Portovelo-Zaruma, Southern Ecuador, which involved consultation with local miners. The objective of the study was to understand the behaviour of mercury (with a focus on mercury loss) in artisanal gold mining operations through the evaluation of two cyanidation processes (Merrill-Crowe and Carbon-in-pulp), using a participatory approach. In order to assess the kinetics of mercury dissolution in cyanide, a bottle roll test was conducted in the laboratory. In the Merrill-Crowe cyanidation process, an average of 24.2% of metallic mercury was determined to be trapped at the bottom of the agitation tanks; 33.1% of mercury is lost in association with solid material and 11.7% is lost in solution. Approximately 31.0% of mercury in solution is sent to the zinc precipitation cells from which 27.8% is precipitated on the zinc shavings, with 3.23% remaining in solution. The mercury precipitated on to the zinc is lost to the atmosphere when the shavings are burned at 900 °C. In the Carbon-in-pulp (CIP) leaching system, 11.2% of the mercury is lost with the solid tailings; 31.6% of the mercury is associated with fine particles in suspension and 50.8% is likely dissolved. About 2.68% is trapped at the bottom of the tank and 3.72% is absorbed by the activated carbon. The bottle roll test revealed that mercury dissolution is directly proportional to cyanide concentration. At 10 g/ton of cyanide, approximately 42% of mercury was leached, whereas all gold was solubilized. During this study, miners recognized the risk associated with the cyanidation of mercury-rich tailings, and were aware of how much mercury is discharged to local streams and to the atmosphere. The active participation of miners in this study has led to the strengthening of their knowledge and awareness of mercury contamination, and has enhanced their understanding of the nature of the problem, as well as the weaknesses and strengths of the system they operate.     

Overcoming environmental problems in the gold panning sector through legislation and education: the Zimbabwean experience

Although small-scale mining is often associated with ruinous effects on the natural environment, Zimbabwe’s experience in gold panning demonstrates that though that may be true, the sector, can, through appropriate measures, be encouraged or enticed to develop environmentally friendly methods for gold mining and recovery. A combination of legislation, education, and the promotion of appropriate technology has enhanced the environmental management within the ever-growing gold panning community in Zimbabwe. This paper evaluates the success of attempts to minimise the environmental impacts of gold panning in Zimbabwe through legislation, education and the promotion of appropriate technology.     

Gold mining in Siberia and the Far East as a source of mercury contamination of the environment

ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＳｉｂｅｒｉａａｎｄｔｈｅＦａｒＥａｓｔａｒｅｔｈｅｏｌｄｅｓｔａｎｄｔｈｅｒｉｃｈｅｓｔｇｏｌｄ ｍｉｎｉｎｇａｒｅａｓｏｆＲｕｓｓｉａ .Ｉｎｔｅｎｓｉｖｅｇｏｌｄ ｍｉｎｉｎｇｈｅｒｅｓｔａｒｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｂｅｇｉｎｎｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅ 19ｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ(Ｖｙａｚｅｌｓｈｃｈｉｋｏｖ ,1963) .Ｆｏｒｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｐａｒｔｇｏｌｄ ｂｅａｒｉｎｇｏｒｅｓａｎｄｓａｎｄｓｗｅｒｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｕｓｅｏｆａｍａｌｇａｍａｔｉｏｎｍｅｔｈｏｄｆｏｒｇｏｌｄｅ…     

Reducing mercury pollution from artisanal gold mining in Munhena,Mozambique

Artisanal small-scale mining (ASM) is responsible for over 90% of gold production in Mozambique. In 2005, a 15-day pilot training project was held in the village of Munhena, a gold mining community. This intervention aimed at raising awareness related to the environmental and health impacts of mercury amalgamation and introduced alternative practices to reduce mercury release and exposure. In 2007, a 9-day evaluation of the pilot campaign was accomplished and knowledge in regards to mining methods, and the ASM government–community operating relations in Munhena were updated. Miners in Munhena are organized in an association of over 3000 members, work on a 25 year Government granted 143 ha concession and generate a substantial income (producing over 5 kg of gold per month). There remain, however, serious barriers towards sustainable community development. ASM associated environmental and health costs are high, as mercury continues to be used and lost to the environment, and cyanide will be introduced soon. The Government of Mozambique has laid the foundation for supporting this sector; however, resources are limited, and thus restrict ability to fully address these issues. Importantly, malaria and HIV/AIDS are not diagnosed and/or treated effectively within the community, and basic necessities are absent. This paper concludes with recommendations focused on enhancing the ASM sector in Mozambique, and overcoming barriers to sustainability in the community of Munhena.     

Trends in the small-scale mining of precious minerals in Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact

Small-scale mining in Ghana is defined to include both the exploitation of mineral deposits (1) using fairly rudimentary implements and/or (2) at low levels of production with minimal capital investment. While the large-scale mining—of particularly gold—has become predominant, small-scale mining, which predates such operations, has continued to be an important economic activity, particularly within the remote and poorer areas of the country. The environmental impacts of such small operations have, however, varied, depending on methods and the scale of operation. The factors that have contributed to aggravating these environmental impacts are economic, technical, legal, and operational in nature. Although mitigation efforts have had a limited impact, it is expected that the measures now being considered for adoption will improve the efficacy of the Government of Ghana’s drive towards improving environmental management in resident small-scale precious metal mining operations.This paper examines the environmental impacts of small-scale mining in Ghana—with particular emphasis on precious minerals and metals extraction—and outlines a series of initiatives for improving environmental performance in the industry.     

Application of sustainable development concepts to an alluvial mineral extraction project in Lower Caroni River,Venezuela

The Caroni River, a tributary of the Orinoco River in the State of Bolivar, Venezuela, has been subjected to mining since the end of the last century. Until the 1990s, hundreds of artisanal miners operated along a 70 km stretch of the river using rudimentary suction dredges to extract gold and diamonds from sediments. Although artisanal miners created considerable wealth along the river, the local community has also been negatively impacted by the social and environmental effects that characterize this sector. The flooding of many parts of the Lower Caroni River, in conjunction with the development of a large hydroelectric-power complex, changed the conditions for dredging operations.A Canada-based company is proposing to open the recently-created hydro-electrical lakes to a Mineral Dredging Project. The early forecasting of potential socioeconomic and environmental impacts would be a valuable tool to build a sustainable business case that facilitates the integration of the project into a sensitive environment. These strategies, currently used in other economic sectors, would contribute to the identification of opportunities to negotiate mutually beneficial agreements with stakeholders of the Project, and reduce the risk of conflict, in this particular case, with the hydroelectric company (EDELCA), former small-scale miners and other stakeholders.This paper, based on the pre-feasibility study of the Project, assesses the applicability of such tools to the mineral dredging and to junior mining company projects in general.     

松花江上游夹皮沟金矿开采区芦苇叶片汞分布特征

为研究金矿开采区周围芦苇(Phragmites australis)叶片汞含量的分布特征、影响因素及其与其它环境要素的相关性,2016年6月(夏季)和9月(秋季)在位于松花江上游的夹皮沟金矿开采区内采集芦苇叶片、土壤、水体样本测定汞含量,同步测定大气汞浓度,并通过单因子污染指数法确定芦苇叶片汞污染等级,分析芦苇叶片汞含量与环境要素汞含量的相关关系.结果表明,在空间分布上,芦苇叶片汞含量以及土壤、水体汞含量均随离夹皮沟金矿距离的加大而逐渐衰减,大气汞浓度空间分布特征不明显;在时间分布上,芦苇叶片汞重污染地区夏季汞含量低于秋季,芦苇叶片汞轻污染地区夏季汞含量略高于秋季,而大气汞、土壤汞含量均为夏季高于秋季;各环境要素对芦苇叶片汞含量的影响重要程度依次为:土壤大气水体;此外,停止混汞法采金多年后,夹皮沟金矿开采区汞源主要为土壤.     

A simplified matrix of environmental impacts to support an intervention program in a small-scale mining site

This paper describes a tool developed to evaluate environmental risks at a Brazilian artisanal small-scale gold mining site. The tool consists of a matrix used to determine the relevance of such risks through the classification of mining activities according to the likelihood that they may cause environmental impacts. The language and method are very simple, and thus appropriate for local stakeholders. It ensures their participation when developing a plan of action for intervention and training. When applied to a pilot site in the Brazilian Amazon, the matrix revealed the variables that pose higher environmental risks. These activities were subsequently addressed in a training program to promote better practices. As a result, the mining activities were improved by 28.8% when comparing compliance to environmental requisites before and after the training program. Specifically, the training program resulted in improved gold recovery, and reduced environmental and health impacts.     

汞的环境地球化学研究进展

介绍了目前对环境样品中总汞及其各形态未的分析方法以及大气和水生生态系统中汞的研究进展，并指出，燃煤、汞齐法采金和人造水库等引起的环境汞污染问题以及汞在热带地区水生生态系统中的迁移转化规律等是目前的研究热点。     

北京市平谷区金矿区周边土壤砷、汞赋存形态特征及生态风险评价

以北京市平谷区金矿区周边土壤为研究对象,采集40个表层（0~20 cm）土壤样品,测定土壤中As、Hg总量及其各赋存形态含量,并采用基于重金属形态的次生相原生相分布比值法（ratio of secondary phase to primary phase,RSP）和风险评价编码法（risk assessment code,RAC）对土壤中As、Hg污染程度及生态风险进行评价。结果表明:各采样区土壤中As、Hg总量均超出北京市土壤背景值,分别超出3.94~13.24,11~41.33倍;土壤中As、Hg主要以残渣态存在,除残渣态外,As主要以铁锰氧化态存在,开采沟和尾矿库土壤中Hg主要以碳酸盐结合态存在,开采沟下游和尾矿库外土壤中Hg则主要以强有机态存在;污染程度和生态风险评价结果显示,开采沟及下游土壤As、Hg污染程度较低,研究区土壤中As、Hg整体表现较低风险,在开采沟、YZ尾矿库和JHH尾矿库存在Hg的高风险和极高风险点位,应予以重视。研究结果为治理金矿区周边土壤As、Hg污染提供参考。     

Improving the environmental management of small-scale gold mining in Ghana: a case study of Dumasi

In April 2000, a UNIDO study was carried out in Dumasi, Ghana, the purpose of which was to determine the environmental impacts of mercury prior to the introduction of (mercury) retorts. The sampling program was intended to identify mercury transfers to rivers, soil systems and groundwater. Results show a diffuse contamination of all environmental media in the village. Although there is no evidence of groundwater contamination, sediments are significantly contaminated, and most fish fillets have mercury contents exceeding the United States Food and Drug Agency (US-FDA) action level, and are therefore unfit for human consumption. Mercury losses mainly occur during amalgamation, and have resulted in widespread pollution of soils and sediments throughout the village. Transparent retorts have been introduced and environmental training is ongoing but these efforts have only partially addressed the mercury problem in Dumasi.     

全球汞污染回顾与分析

回顾全球所经历的主要汞污染事件,引述国外科研工作者对全球汞污染与汞排放的调查和研究成果,重点介绍金矿开采对环境的污染与危害,揭示造成亚马逊流域汞污染的深层根源。分析今后全球防止汞污染的主要措施：一是主要工业化国家将进一步研究和改善工业领域相关行业的工艺技术水平,趋向无汞产品和无汞工艺,以减少自身的汞污染与排放;其二,发达国家陆续立法禁止汞的自由贸易和出口。发达国家对汞的出口限制将促使发展中国家相关行业（特别是小金矿）采取汞的替代工艺,从而减少全球性汞污染与排放。