A toxicity-based method for evaluating safety of reclaimed water for environmental reuses

A large quantity of toxic chemical pollutants possibly remains in reclaimed water due to the limited removal efficiency in traditional reclamation processes. It is not enough to guarantee the safety of reclaimed water using conventional water quality criteria. An integrated assessment method based on toxicity test is necessary to vividly depict the safety of reclaimed water for reuse. A toxicity test battery consisting of lethality, genotoxicity and endocrine disrupting effect was designed to screen the multiple biological effects of residual toxic chemicals in reclaimed water. The toxicity results of reclaimed water were converted into the equivalent concentrations of the corresponding positive reference substances（EQC）. Simultaneously, the predicted no-effect concentration（PNEC） of each positive reference substance was obtained by analyzing the species sensitivity distribution（SSD） of toxicity data. An index ＂toxicity score＂ was proposed and valued as 1, 2, 3, or 4 depending on the ratio of the corresponding EQC to PNEC. For vividly ranking the safety of reclaimed water, an integrated assessment index ＂toxicity rank＂ was proposed, which was classified into A, B, C, or D rank with A being the safest. The proposed method was proved to be effective in evaluating reclaimed water samples in case studies.     

A synthetical methodology for identifying priority pollutants in reclaimed water based on meta-analysis

Wastewater reclamation and reuse is an increasing global project, while the reclamation treatment on wastewater does not completely remove all pollutants in water. The residual pollutants in reclaimed water would cause potential risk on human health and ecosystem safety during the long-term use. It is impossible to analyze and control all pollutants one by one in practice, therefore, identification and control of priority pollutants will be efficient strategy to ensure the safe use of reclaimed ...     

污水再生利用微生物控制标准及其制定方法探讨

污水再生利用的关键是水质安全保障和风险控制.微生物风险是再生水安全利用过程中需要优先控制的重要问题.本文系统探讨了我国现行污水再生利用标准中的病原微生物控制要求,分析了基于病原微生物指示指标浓度控制的必要性与不足,提出了引入微生物去除能力保障控制的必要性,并详细介绍了其制定方法与保障措施.今后,需进一步深入探讨基于浓度控制与保障能力控制相结合的污水再生利用微生物控制方法,以期为我国再生水安全利用提供技术支撑.     

Wastewater reclamation and reuse in China: Opportunities and challenges

The growing water stress both in terms of water scarcity and quality deterioration promotes the development of reclaimed water as a new water resource use. This paper reviewed wastewater reuse practices in China, and the opportunities and challenges of expanding reclaimed water use were analyzed. Rapid urbanization with the increasing of water demand and wastewater discharge provides an opportunity for wastewater reuse. The vast amount of wastewater discharge and low reclaimed water production mean that wastewater reuse still has a great potential in China. Many environmental and economic benefits and successful reclamation technologies also provide opportunities for wastewater reuse. In addition, the overall strategy in China is also encouraging for wastewater reuse. In the beginning stage of wastewater reclamation and reuse, there are many significant challenges to expand wastewater reuse in China including slow pace in adopting urban wastewater reuse programs, the establishment of integrated water resources management framework and guidelines for wastewater reuse programs, incoherent water quality requirements, the limited commercial development of reclaimed water and the strengthening of public awareness and cooperation among stakeholders.     

生物毒性检测在水质安全评价中的应用

水质安全不仅关乎生态系统的健康,更关乎人类的生存与发展.借助水质标准浓度限值的传统方法评价水质安全存在一定不足,生物毒性测试能直观反映水体中所有共存污染物的综合毒性特征,已逐渐发展成为水质安全评价的重要补充.在大量文献资料调研、整理的基础上,首先从污染物的生物效应出发,总结了常用的致死毒性、遗传毒性、内分泌干扰性等效应的生物毒性测试方法;其次,讨论了水质毒性评价中常用的生物毒性测试方法和相应的毒性评价指标;最后,归纳总结了基于生物毒性测试的水质安全评价方法,包括潜在毒性法、毒性单位分级评价法、潜在生态毒性效应指数法、基于成组生物毒性测试的水质安全评价等,并讨论了各种方法的优缺点.本文既系统梳理了毒性测试在水质安全评价领域的研究进展,也为该领域后续的发展奠定了基础.     

北京市清水与再生水协同利用优化模型

开展协同利用清水与再生水的城市供水系统优化研究具有重要的科学意义和广阔的应用前景.为促进城市水资源高效利用,基于多水源转换关系以及再生水生产能力和利用潜力,构建了面向多区域多部门的城市清水与再生水协同利用优化模型,并以水资源严重短缺的北京市为例进行实证研究.设置规划方案基准情景和规划替代方案情景,分别优化了清水与再生水的协同利用方案以及再生水厂群的运行方案.在规划方案基准情景下,再生水占研究区用水总量的32%,分别占农业、工业、环境用水量的60%、30%和42%.海淀区和石景山区再生水供给矛盾将较为突出.相比之下,规划替代方案情景可以获得更高的经济效益,总效益增加6. 21亿元,同时能增加再生水利用量36. 59%、减少清水用量14. 02%.规划替代方案能更加充分地利用现有设施,促进水资源循环利用.此外,还提供了在现有设施条件下,再生水利用量由政策规划值逐渐提升至最佳规模过程中再生水厂群的运行过渡方案.本文建立的研究方法具有较广泛的适用性,可用于解决其它具有再生水利用潜力地区的水资源短缺问题.     

沈阳市中水回用对策研究及前景分析

为了解决全市水资源严重短缺问题，缓解污水排放对生态环境造成的破坏，沈阳市在今后5～10a内将建成中水回用系统，使城市中水回用率达到50％。结合沈阳市中水回用现状，分析了目前全市中水供应能力及市场需求，进行了2010年相应指标的预测，同时探讨了沈阳市中水回用存在的问题和解决方法。     

A biological safety evaluation on reclaimed water reused as scenic water using a bioassay battery

An assessment method based on three toxicity tests (algae growth inhibition, daphnia immobilization and larval fish toxicity) was used to screen the biological safety of reclaimed water which was reused as sole replenishment for scenic water system in a park (SOF Park) in northern China. A total of 24 water samples were collected from six sites of water system in the SOF Park in four different seasons. The results indicated that: (1) the reclaimed water directly discharged from a reclamation treatment plant near the SOF Park as influent of park had relatively low biological safety (all samples were ranked as C or D); (2) the biological safety of reclaimed water was improved greatly with the ecological reclamation treatment processes composing of artificial wetland system and followed oxidation pond system; (3) the biological safety of reclaimed water in the main lake of SOF Park kept at a health status during different seasons (all samples were ranked as A); (4) there was some certain correlation (R² = 0.5737) between the sum of toxicity scores and dissolved organic carbon for the studied water samples. It was concluded that the assessment method was reliable to screen the safety of reclaimed water reused as scenic water, and the reclaimed water with further ecological purification processes such as artificial wetland and oxidation pond system can be safely reused as scenic water in park.     

Joint effects of heavy metal binary mixtures on seed germination, root and shoot growth, bacterial bioluminescence, and gene mutation

This investigation was to assess the joint effects of metal binary mixtures on seed germination,root and shoot growth,bacterial bioluminescence,and gene mutation based on the one toxic unit(1 TU)approach.Different sensitivities and orders of toxicity of metal mixtures were observed among the bioassays.In general,mostly additive or antagonistic effects were observed,while almost no synergistic effects by the binary metal mixtures in all bioassays.Therefore,the combined effects of heavy metals in the different bioassays were difficult to generalize since they were dependent on both chemical type and the organism used in each bioassay.However, these results indicate that a battery of bioassays with mixture chemicals as opposed to just a single assay with single metal is a better strategy for the bioassessment of environmental pollutants.     

利用成组生物测试评估不同深度处理工艺出水的安全性

针对北京北小河污水处理厂出水经深度处理后回用于奥运公园的生态安全性 ,用成组生物毒性测试方法比较了不同深度处理工艺对导致急性毒性的物质、内分泌干扰物质和Ah受体效应物质的去除效果 .结果表明 :城市污水厂出水中含有急性毒性、内分泌干扰和Ah受体效应毒性特征的污染物 ,超滤和活性炭对不同类型物质均有较好的去除效果 .活性炭吸附能基本有效去除具有急性毒性污染物 ,对Ah受体特征物质的去除率达到了98% ;超滤对非极性、具有急性毒性特征的物质和极性的类雌激素物质去除效果最好 ,经超滤处理后的出水非极性组分细胞存活率达100% ,极性组分雌激素当量由0.13pmol·L^-1下降到0.04 pmol·L^-1.微滤和反渗透工艺不能有效去除有毒有机污染物 .进行生物毒性测试时 ,不同组分之间可能存在相互作用 ,需要采用样品分级方法 .     

Toxicity-based assessment of the treatment performance of wastewater treatment and reclamation processes

The reclamation and reuse of wastewater is one of the possible ways to relieve the serious fresh water resource crisis in China. Efficient reclamation treatment technologies ensure the safe reuse of reclaimed water. In order to screen out and evaluate technologies appropriate for reclamation treatment, a great deal of efforts have been brought to bear. In the present study, a toxicity-based method including a Photobacterium phosphoreum test for acute toxicity and SOS/umu test for genotoxicity, accompanied by the traditional physicochemical parameters DOC (dissolved organic carbon) and UV₂₅₄ (absorbance at 254 nm), was used to measure the treatment performance of different reclamation processes, including the anaerobic-anoxic-oxic biological process (A²O) and subsequent physical/chemical reclamation processes (ultrafiltration, ozonation, chlorination). It was found that for the secondary effluent after the A²O process, both the toxicity and physicochemical indices had greatly decreased compared with those of the influent. However, chemical reclamation processes such as ozonation and chlorination could possibly raise toxicity levels again. Fortunately, the toxicity elevation could be avoided by optimizing the ozone dosage and using activated carbon after ozonation. It was noted that by increasing the ozone dosage to 10 mg/L and employing activated carbon with more than 10 min hydraulic retention time, toxicity elevation was controlled. Furthermore, it was shown that pre-ozonation before activated carbon and chlorination played an important role in removing organic compounds and reducing the toxicity formation potential. The toxicity test could serve as a valuable tool to evaluate the performance of reclamation processes.     

再生水回用的标准比较与技术经济分析

近年来随着全球性水资源危机的加剧,再生水作为一种潜在的水资源得到了越来越广泛的关注,再生水回用的研究与应用也不断深入.因此,本文通过文献调研,系统总结了我国与美国、欧盟、日本和澳大利亚的再生水标准体系与处理工艺,重点比较和分析了我国再生水标准体系中存在的问题与不足,并提出相关建议,以期对我国再生水回用提供借鉴.     

水生植物法再生景观回用水水质稳定技术研究

建立了污水处理和景观回用中试试验系统,景观回用试验水量为11 m3,研究了城市污水经二级生物处理再生后用作景观环境用水的水质稳定性;构建了不同结构的水生植物系统,研究了该系统对再生景观环境用水水质的影响. 结果表明:在晴朗天气,白天水温为(28±2)　℃,夜间水温为(20±2)℃的条件下,二级生物处理的再生水在瓷砖水池中最多可以稳定3 d;结构完善的“挺水-浮叶-沉水-浮水”水生植物系统能够有效抑制再生景观回用水中藻类的滋生,并可降低其有机物和氮、磷的含量,在9 d内使ρ(COD_Cr),ρ(TP)和ρ(NH₃-N)分别降低76.9%,95.8%和95.2%,从而使水质保持稳定并得以改善,使回用水水质完全符合再生景观回用水国家标准. 因此,构建结构完善的水生植物系统可实现污水再生景观回用.      

Formation and control of disinfection byproducts and toxicity during reclaimed water chlorination: A review

Chlorination is essential to the safety of reclaimed water; however, this process leads to concern regarding the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and toxicity. This study reviewed the formation and control strategies for DBPs and toxicity in reclaimed water during chlorination. Both regulated and emerging DBPs have been frequently detected in reclaimed water during chlorination at a higher level than those in drinking water, indicating they pose a greater risk to humans. Luminescent bacteria and Daphnia magna acute toxicity, anti-estrogenic activity and cytotoxicity generally increased after chlorination because of the formation of DBPs. Genotoxicity by umu-test and estrogenic activity were decreased after chlorination because of destruction of toxic chemicals. During chlorination, water quality significantly impacted changes in toxicity. Ammonium tended to attenuate toxicity changes by reacting with chlorine to form chloramine, while bromide tended to aggravate toxicity changes by forming hypobromous acid. During pretreatment by ozonation and coagulation, disinfection byproduct formation potential (DBPFP) and toxicity formation potential (TFP) occasionally increase, which is accompanied by DOC removal; thus, the decrease of DOC was limited to indicate the decrease of DBPFP and TFP. It is more important to eliminate the key fraction of precursors such as hydrophobic acid and hydrophilic neutrals. During chlorination, toxicities can increase with the increasing chlorine dose and contact time. To control the excessive toxicity formation, a relatively low chlorine dose and short contact time were required. Quenching chlorine residual with reductive reagents also effectively abated the formation of toxic compounds.     

城市污水中新兴微量有机污染物控制目标与再生处理技术

城市污水再生利用是缓解城市缺水问题和改善城市水环境质量的重要方法,其前提是水质安全保障.城市污水中近年来不断检出新兴微量有机污染物（trace organic contaminants,TOrCs）,如抗生素、全氟化合物、雌激素等,是再生水水质安全的重要威胁.针对城市污水再生深度处理需明确新兴TOrCs控制目标和处理技术的需求,系统比较了欧盟、美国、澳大利亚等再生水利用先行国家和地区在TOrCs控制目标、指南、规范、技术与工艺管理等方面的研究和实践进展.结果表明,由于TOrCs浓度低且种类多,TOrCs被分为高风险TOrCs和指示性TOrCs.美国加州地区和澳大利亚根据风险水平和检出水平分别提出了高风险TOrCs和指示性TOrCs种类清单和浓度限值,然而该清单中的TOrCs种类和浓度限值尚未列入强制标准或规范.针对再生水TOrCs风险控制需求,瑞士、美国加州等提出了多级屏障再生水处理工艺.瑞士提出,城市污水深度处理对卡马西平等药品类TOrCs去除率应大于80%,美国加州规定补充饮用水源的再生水深度处理应去除69%以上的1,4-二恶烷.此外,TOrCs控制高度依赖重源头控污（工业废水阻断）、单元协同、在线监控反馈与实时优化等全流程安全保障措施.随着我国再生水用量持续增加,用途不断拓展,亟需制定针对性强、现实可行的TOrCs控制指南和规范,包括明确高风险和指示性TOrCs,推动多级屏障再生水深度处理工艺,以TOrCs去除率为深度处理目标.      

系统工程视野下的再生水饮用回用安全保障体系构建

再生水是就地可取、稳定可靠的城市第二水源.再生水饮用回用（补充水源）技术经济性可行,是解决城市缺水问题的重要途径和构建可持续水循环系统的重要组成部分.作为具有复杂系统特征的非传统供水工程,再生水饮用回用的关键是保障水质安全稳定和系统可靠高效运行,因此需要构建包括水质安全管理、健康风险评价和多重屏障工程措施在内的安全保障体系.水质安全管理方面需建设包括制订科学的饮用回用水质标准和再生水处理工艺要求,建立针对再生水处理工艺和饮用回用全系统的危害分析关键控制点管理（HACCP）体系,并加强水质安全监管和认证.健康风险评价方面需开展全方位、统筹性和持续性的化学污染物和微生物风险评价方法.工程措施方面需建设包括源头控制、再生水厂净化、环境缓冲和饮用水厂净化在内的多重屏障系统,以确保水质安全.在多重屏障系统中,再生水厂是保障饮用回用水质安全的核心环节,“反渗透-高级氧化”和“臭氧-生物活性炭”是再生水处理的可行工艺.今后需深入、持续开展新兴高风险污染物控制技术、再生水环境储存和饮用回用模式等方面的研究.      

南宁市中水回用问题与对策研究

中水水量稳定,处理达标后的中水可回用于工业冷却、农业灌溉、城市杂用及河流景观补水等方面。中水回用对缓解城市干旱缺水具有一定作用。以近年来南宁市遭遇的干旱为依据,阐述了中水回用的必要性。介绍了南宁市水资源及中水回用状况,分析中水回用存在问题,提出了南宁市中水回用对策。根据南宁市污水处理厂及潜在中水用户分布,结合南宁市各行业用水实际情况,南宁市中水宜就近回用作工业用水及生态环境用水,也可由罐车输送用于道路冲洗及城市绿化灌溉。     

不同干扰强度对滩涂围垦区土壤颗粒组成的时空分异特征的影响

滩涂是陆地与海洋间重要的生态交错带以及生态系统之一,随着沿海地区经济的发展,滩涂围垦成为缓解区域土地利用压力的重要途径之一。论文通过对不同围垦年限以及不同人类干扰强度下土壤粒径分布（Particle Size Distribution）的时空差异研究,比较了自然演变和人类活动双重影响下,垦区环境的变化过程及影响因素。结果表明：1）在60 a的围垦过程中,在强烈、中度和无人类干扰强度下,土壤粒径分布均表现出在脱盐过程中随围垦年限增加而砂粒减少、粉粒和粘粒增加的过程,脱盐后砂粒的年均下降率可达0.72%;2）在无干扰强度下,土壤粒径分布反映出滩涂围垦和脱离海水影响的自然过程,而强烈和中度干扰强度则在此基础上反映出人为和自然干扰的综合效果;3）耕种方式、时间以及土壤侵蚀等因素均会对土壤粒径分布的变化强度造成影响而表现出显著的空间差异性;4）土壤粒径的时空分布可以综合反映出滩涂围垦区的环境特点,对指导垦区内土地资源的合理开发利用具有重要意义。在长期的围垦过程中,不同的开发利用时间及区位表现出了不同的关键影响因素,使垦区内土地利用格局和资源配置仍存在诸多不合理之处,随之带来相应的环境问题必须引起重视,为未来滩涂围垦区的合理规划提供理论依据。     

城市污水再生利用化学污染物健康风险评价

随着城市污水回用工程增多,再生回用水的安全性问题日益受到人们的重视,回用水中化学污染物造成的人体健康风险计算评价成为要解决的重要问题,建立再生水回用造成的健康风险评价方法成为亟待解决的问题.在对城市污水中重金属检测结果的基础上,对常见的再生水回用途经,通过实例介绍了随机分析方法在健康风险评价中的应用.     

校园小区中水回用的经济技术分析

中水回用是解决中国城市水短缺和水污染问题的重要手段,对小区而言具有实践可行、技术成熟、综合效益高等优势。文章在分析城市中水回用实践存在的障碍基础上,提出化整为零的污水处理回用方式,阐述了小区中水回用系统建设的必要性和可行性。文章结合校园小区的给排水状况、校园小区的中水处理工艺,通过校园小区的中水处理系统的经济技术分析、中水供水系统的经济技术分析、中水系统综合效益的分析提出建议,认为随着膜生产技术的发展,MBR法应是小区中水回用工艺的首选。