内蒙古皇甫川五分地沟小流域土地覆盖空间格局特征及其持续性分析

基于1979、1987和2002年3个时期的土地覆盖类型图,从斑块面积、形状、空间关系3方面着手,利用斑块面积百分比、面积变异系数、分维数3个景观格局指数对内蒙古皇甫川五分地沟小流域的土地覆盖格局及变化特征进行研究;并以流域为尺度,测算土地覆盖破碎度、多样性指数、分维数、合理性指数4个指标随时间变化的持续性。结果表明:研究区土地覆盖现状呈现各类型相对较均衡的镶嵌状分布格局,土地覆盖类型较稳定,斑块形状较简单,受人类干扰较大。土地覆盖特征指数的持续性分析结果与对应的指标分析结果相吻合。     

内蒙古皇甫川五分地沟小流域土地覆盖空间格局特征及其持续性分析

基于1979、1987和2002年3个时期的土地覆盖类型图，从斑块面积、形状、空间关系3方面着手。利用斑块面积百分比、面积变异系数、分维数3个景观格局指数对内蒙古皇甫川五分地沟小流域的土地覆盖格局及变化特征进行研究；并以流域为尺度，测算土地覆盖破碎度、多样性指数、分维数、合理性指数4个指标随时间变化的持续性。结果表明：研究区土地覆盖现状呈现各类型相对较均衡的镶嵌状分布格局，土地覆盖类型较稳定，斑块形状较简单，受人类干扰较大。土地覆盖特征指数的持续性分析结果与对应的指标分析结果相吻合。     

土壤、土地利用多样性及其与相关景观指数的关联分析

土壤作为人类赖以生存的物质基础,与土地利用之间存在密切联系,土壤类型及属性的差异很大程度上决定了土地利用的方式,同时土地利用方式的不同也间接地改变着土壤类型、性质及功能多样性的格局。在人地矛盾、人与自然矛盾不断加剧的今天,研究土地和土壤的空间分布格局变化及两者之间的交互关系具有重要意义。利用土壤多样性理论和景观生态学原理综合分析土壤、土地利用类型的空间分布格局,并借助空间网格的概念量化分析土壤和土地利用类型的空间分布情况。以河南省中南部样区为研究对象,利用仙农熵变形公式计算了1 km×1 km、3 km×3 km、5 km×5 km 3种网格尺度下的土壤和土地利用的空间分布多样性和各县市的土壤和土地利用构成组分多样性,运用ArcGIS探讨了多样性指数与景观指数之间的关联性,综合评价研究区的土壤类型空间分布与土地利用空间分布格局的相互性。研究表明：同一种土壤和土地利用类型的空间分布多样性指数在异网格尺度下具有相似的分异规律;土地利用与土壤类型的构成组分多样性之间不具有明显的相关性,土壤类型均匀分布的地区,土地利用类型不一定会均匀分布,而两者的平均斑块面积之间具有明显的相关性,土壤斑块的大小对土地利用斑块的大小影响较大,土壤类型的空间分布特征在一定程度上,将影响土地利用的空间分布格局和变化过程;土壤类型的面积指数、平均斑块面积指数分别与土壤空间分布多样性之间具有较好的相关性,相关系数分别为r2=0.990、r2=0.599。而土地利用的面积指数、平均斑块面积指数与土地利用空间分布多样性指数之间的相关性较差,相关系数分别为r2=0.437、r2=0.034。土壤的平均斑块形状指数与多样性指数之间存在一定正相关关系,相关系数为r2=0.612;但土地利用的形状指数与多样性之     

基于最佳尺度的景观生态风险时空变化研究：以重庆市江津区为例

探究景观生态风险的时空变化规律,合理评估生态风险状况,有利于维护区域生态安全和经济社会可持续发展。以2000、2009和2018年3期遥感影像为基础,综合运用景观格局指数、空间自相关分析和地理探测器工具,探究最佳尺度下江津区景观生态风险时空变化特征及其影响因素。结果表明:(1)景观指数随粒度和幅度的改变而呈现不同的变化规律,90 m栅格和3 km网格尺寸能更好地体现景观格局空间异质性特征;(2)2000—2018年研究区景观生态风险空间格局变化较大,景观生态风险威胁程度整体有所上升,中风险区逐渐成为区域主导类型;(3)研究区各时期景观生态风险空间集聚特征显著,景观生态风险指数空间分布以高-高集聚和低-低集聚为主;(4)人类活动对于区域景观格局和生态系统的影响愈发强烈,人口密度和GDP是影响景观生态风险时空分布的重要驱动因素。研究结果可为长江上游重要生态屏障建设提供决策参考。     

江苏省原生滨海湿地景观多样性及其粒度效应研究

土地覆盖是生态系统的重要组成部分,其具有明显的空间尺度(包括空间粒度和幅度)属性,而尺度问题是景观空间研究的关键环节之一。为了探究江苏省原生滨海湿地景观多样性及其粒度效应,在GIS和RS技术支持下,以江苏省原生滨海湿地2017年高精度遥感影像为基础,编制了景观类型图,选取一系列经典景观指数,在类型和整体景观的水平上,探讨江苏省原生滨海湿地景观多样性及其粒度效应,为选择适宜粒度进行土地覆盖的景观指数计算和尺度转换提供理论依据。结果表明,不同土地利用景观斑块密度、蔓延度指数、凝聚度指数、平均形状指数、面积加权分维数指数、丰富度指数、Shannon多样性指数、均匀度指数基本表现为林地最大,灌木地其次,未利用地、建设用地和水域最小;分离度指数耕地和未利用地最大,草地和水域其次,建设用地最小。在1—60 m粒度范围内,粒度增加对优势景观有加强作用,随着粒度逐渐增大,景观中的优势覆盖类型面积比率增大,其他景观覆盖类型面积逐渐减少。随粒度不断增加,在类型水平上,不同土地类型的景观特征指数变化曲线主要呈现3种类型:(1)随着粒度的不断变大,面积加权分维数、如斑块密度、平均形状指数、凝聚度指数呈现单调递减的趋势,各指数均表现为林地最大;(2)随粒度变化,面积百分比呈现稳定状态;(3)在粒度变化过程中,分离度指数及有效网格大小变化曲线差异性较大。平均形状指数、聚集度指数、分离度指数和凝聚度指数变化幅度并不大,受空间格局特征的影响不大。各类景观指数的分维数在1—60 m粒度内,具有明显的随粒度增加而减小的趋势,说明这些景观的形态结构在这一粒度范围内具有自相似性。相关性分析定量反映了所选景观指数受粒度变化影响的相关性程度,不同景观特征与粒度的相关性存在较大差异。     

多维地形因子作用下的西南山地丘陵过渡带景观格局研究:以涪江流域中上游为例

山地丘陵过渡带地形独特,地形因子分析不仅可以对复杂地理单元的景观格局做出合理解释,而且能进一步了解景观格局分布规律,为优化空间配置奠定基础。以2017年Google Earth影像、DEM和全球30 m地表覆盖数据为数据源,运用GIS技术、分布指数、景观格局指数和移动窗口法等方法,分析了涪江流域中上游地区景观类型随高程、坡度、起伏度和坡向的空间分布特征,利用Pearson相关性分析探究不同地形因子对景观格局变化的影响程度。结果表明:(1)随着高程、坡度和起伏度的增加,景观类型由人为主导的耕地、建设用地过渡为以自然为主导的林地、草地;从阳坡到阴坡,建设用地分布由优势到劣势下降最为明显。(2)流域景观类型最为丰富的地貌为冲积平原,主要分布于海拔500～650 m、坡度0～5°和起伏度10～30 m的区域;高海拔、坡度和起伏度地区的景观格局单一化趋势明显,破碎化程度较轻。(3)山地区的多样化景观主要分布在涪江沿岸,丘陵区涪江沿岸景观呈现单一化趋势,冲积平原区景观由外向内呈现出相对单一化—多样化—相对单一化的趋势,城乡结合部景观最为丰富。(4)不同地形因子对景观格局的影响程度为高程坡度起伏度坡向,高程、坡度、起伏度与景观格局有较强的相关性,而坡向则表现为弱相关性。     

北京城市发展新区土地利用景观格局分析

以北京南部城市发展新区典型代表———房山、大兴、通州3处作为研究区,运用马尔科夫转移矩阵和景观格局指数的方法,进行土地利用变化和景观格局分析。通过对2001—2006年、2006—2011年两个时段的对比分析,发现2001—2006年研究区存在草地、林地、耕地等非建设用地类型面积下降,建设用地面积上升的趋势,且2006—2011年该趋势更加明显。结果表明研究区自然景观向人文景观变革迅速,并面临着后备土地资源不足等问题,亟需调整土地利用方式并优化景观系统空间格局。     

森林景观格局研究中的尺度效应

以TM影像和野外调查为数据源,以3S技术为研究手段,从研究区域不同的取样尺度入手,分析了尺度变化对区域景观格局研究的影响.结果表明,研究区景观斑块的数量、最大斑块面积与取样面积之间关系密切.取样面积对景观格局的影响分析显示,在取样面积为研究区面积的70%时,景观多样性最高,平均多样性指数为1.854.当取样面积小于总面积的69%时,景观优势度指数呈增加的趋势.图4表2参16     

景观格局对植物多样性影响研究进展

景观格局对植物多样性有重要影响,植物多样性包括α、β、γ多样性。从景观斑块面积、形状、配置方式、景观类型和尺度效应等方面对植物多样性进行了综述。景观斑块面积能对物种产生质量效应,除部分热带植物外,大部分植物在一定范围内,其物种丰富度与斑块面积呈正相关关系,随着斑块面积的增加,斑块内部种比边缘种数量增加快;但是随着景观破碎化严重,小斑块为物种提供主要栖息地,所以对小斑块的研究和保护具有重要意义。形状复杂的景观斑块能够保持较高的植物多样性,不同植物类群的多样性指数存在差异。景观斑块复杂的边缘,植物物种多样性较高,多为适应性强的边缘种。景观异质性与物种丰富度、β多样性呈显著正相关。景观多样性以及景观斑块之间的连通性与植物多样性呈正相关关系。不同景观类型的合理配置,特别是生态交错区,有利于保持植物多样性。研究发现隔离度对物种丰富度和多样性具有消极影响,主要是由质量效应和邻近效应产生的影响,因为这可以为更多的物种提供更广阔的栖息地,并且有利于种子的传播,从而提高植物的生存率。文章还总结了全球主要的土地利用类型对植物多样性的影响,包括农业用地、草地、森林,多种土地利用类型相结合有助于提高植物多样性,尤其是群落交错区的存在。景观格局与植物多样性的关系存在空间尺度效应,空间尺度效应对植物多样性的研究可以从空间的幅度和粒度中的小尺度、中尺度、大尺度对物种的影响进行研究。景观格局指数高度浓缩了景观格局信息,是反映景观结构和配置等方面特征的简单量化指标,目前应用广泛。未来可从优化景观格局、尺度阈值及影响机制方面做进一步研究。     

河南省黄泛区农业景观格局动态及驱动因素

以1987年和2002年TM影像及1997年河南省土地利用现状图为主要数据源,采用斑块密度、景观多样性指数、破碎化指数、优势度和分布质心5个景观格局指数定量分析近20 a来河南省黄泛区农业景观格局动态变化及其驱动因子.结果表明,1987-2002年河南省黄泛区农业景观动态变化显著,各景观类型面积、斑块数量和斑块密度都发生了较大变化.水浇地、旱地和建设用地景观类型面积增加,是该地区占优势的景观类型,2002年占全区总面积比例为83.51%.该区人类活动强度较大,景观多样性和破碎化指数增大,优势度减小,说明各景观类型所占面积比例差异正在缩小,区域整体景观破碎化程度仍在增加.农业发展、人口增长、经济发展、人民生活水平提高和城镇化进程加速等是该区农业景观格局变化的主要驱动因素.     

大城市边缘区土地利用空间格局特征分析.以北京大兴区为例

以北京大兴区为例,利用景观格局和空间分析方法,从产业布局和区位角度分析大城市边缘区土地利用空间分异特征.结果表明：（1）该区土地利用程度高,区域产业布局及距城市、村镇和道路距离等区位因素使其土地利用综合水平呈现北高南低、北部和南部区域内部重点镇高于一般镇的等级梯度分异格局.（2）设施农用地、园地和设施耕地等集约利用程度较高的农用地比例很大,集中分布在村镇和道路附近,生产便利性和成本是其空间分异的主要影响因素;（3）各类土地破碎化严重,集聚度和规模化程度低,亟需通过土地综合整治,重构村庄空间体系,充分发挥循环经济和农用地多功能性的优势,优化农业产业间及其与非农用地间的用地结构和空间布局,进一步提高土地利用综合效益.     

兰州市主城区土壤重金属空间分布特征及污染评价

为查明兰州市4个主要城区土壤重金属Cu、Zn、Pb的空间分布特征和环境质量状况,应用Kriging最优内插法和地累积指数法进行研究,结果表明：Cu、Zn、Pb在研究区土壤中有一定程度的累积;3种重金属含量的空间变异较大,最高值均出现在西固区;大部分区域土壤Cu含量低于背景值,大部分区域土壤Zn、Pb均大于背景值,其中Pb在城关区土壤含量普遍较高。根据地累积指数法,Cu、Pb的大部分及Zn的全部样点都在轻污染-中污染及以下水平;土壤Cu的0级样点占50%以上,但在西固区有1个强污染样点;Zn和Pb样点主要在1级水平,Zn在七里河区污染程度相对严重;城关区土壤均受到不同程度的Pb污染;安宁区土壤环境质量相对较好。     

Use of Inverse Spatial Conservation Prioritization to Avoid Biological Diversity Loss Outside Protected Areas

Globally expanding human land use sets constantly increasing pressure for maintenance of biological diversity and functioning ecosystems. To fight the decline of biological diversity, conservation science has broken ground with methods such as the operational model of systematic conservation planning (SCP), which focuses on design and on‐the‐ground implementation of conservation areas. The most commonly used method in SCP is reserve selection that focuses on the spatial design of reserve networks and their expansion. We expanded these methods by introducing another form of spatial allocation of conservation effort relevant for land‐use zoning at the landscape scale that avoids negative ecological effects of human land use outside protected areas. We call our method inverse spatial conservation prioritization. It can be used to identify areas suitable for economic development while simultaneously limiting total ecological and environmental effects of that development at the landscape level by identifying areas with highest economic but lowest ecological value. Our method is not based on a priori targets, and as such it is applicable to cases where the effects of land use on, for example, individual species or ecosystem types are relatively small and would not lead to violation of regional or national conservation targets. We applied our method to land‐use allocation to peat mining. Our method identified a combination of profitable production areas that provides the needed area for peat production while retaining most of the landscape‐level ecological value of the ecosystem. The results of this inverse spatial conservation prioritization are being used in land‐use zoning in the province of Central Finland.     

Landscape spatial changes associated with rapid urbanization in Shenzhen,China

Rapid urbanization and a building boom in Chinese cities, together with the increase in human disturbances in ecosystems, have resulted in a range of ecological and land-use problems. The formulation of policies relating to urban land use requires adequate understanding of the landscape dynamics. The objective of the study was to describe spatial patterns and dynamic changes of the regional landscape of Shenzhen in the past 20 years. Based on MSS & TM images from 1978, 1986, 1990, 1995 and 1999, a landscape classification map of Shenzhen was constructed. Three kinds of spatial pattern indices, including landscape diversity, spatial configuration and characteristics of patches, as well as a human disturbance index, were examined using models and GIS. In the past two decades, the regional landscape in Shenzhen has changed dramatically, from a typical agricultural landscape to a rapidly urbanizing landscape. The gradual reduction in the cultivated land area and the dramatic increase in the built-up areas illustrate this progress clearly. Indices for the landscape spatial pattern have changed substantially. Some of the changes, reflecting the reasonable control of urban planning on the regional landscape, are the consequence of careful planning, but many of them are the result of disordered human disturbances that have occurred during the rapid urbanization process. These findings are helpful to future landscape development and land-use planning.     

Spatial heterogeneity influences native and nonnative plant species richness

Spatial heterogeneity may have differential effects on the distribution of native and nonnative plant species richness. We examined the effects of spatial heterogeneity on native and nonnative plant species richness distributions in the central part of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Spatial heterogeneity around vegetation plots was characterized using landscape metrics, environmental/topographic variables (slope, aspect, elevation, and distance from stream or river), and soil variables (nitrogen, clay, and sand). The landscape metrics represented five components of landscape heterogeneity and were measured at four spatial extents (within varying radii of 120, 240, 480, and 960 m) using the FRAGSTATS landscape pattern analysis program. Akaike's Information Criterion adjusted for small sample size (AICc) was used to select the best models from a set of multiple linear regression models developed for native and nonnative plant species richness at four spatial extents and three levels of ecological hierarchy (i.e., landscape, land cover, and community). Both native and nonnative plant species richness were positively correlated with edge density, Simpson's diversity index and interspersion/juxtaposition index, and were negatively correlated with mean patch size. The amount of variation explained at four spatial extents and three hierarchical levels ranged from 30% to 70%. At the landscape level, the best models explained 43% of the variation in native plant species richness and 70% of the variation in nonnative plant species richness (240-m extent). In general, the amount of variation explained was always higher for nonnative plant species richness, and the inclusion of landscape metrics always significantly improved the models. The best models explained 66% of the variation in nonnative plant species richness for both the conifer land cover type and lodgepole pine community. The relative influence of the components of spatial heterogeneity differed for native and nonnative plant species richness and varied with the spatial extent of analysis and levels of ecological hierarchy. The study offers an approach to quantify spatial heterogeneity to improve models of plant biodiversity. The results demonstrate that ecologists must recognize the importance of spatial heterogeneity in managing native and nonnative plant species.     

Forest fragmentation in the Himalaya: A Central Himalayan case study

Administrative divisions in the Great Southern Watershed of the Himalaya are diverse in terms of population density and forest cover. This study analyzed the spatial patterns of different attributes in the different Indian states and Himalayan kingdoms, and explored the extent and patterns of forest fragmentation in a Himalayan landscape as a case study. Of the total landscape in the case study area (3167 km²), 41% was fragmented. Homogenous landscape (59%) includes either continuous natural vegetation or a village landscape. Presence of two forest patches (38% of the total fragmented area) at a unit scale of about 0.5 km² (525 × 525 m) was the most commonly occurring pattern but, in some parts, up to 13 patches were observed. Fragmentation of vegetation was visible even at smaller scales of landscape analysis. At a scale of 75 × 75 m, land division into three patches was observed. With an increase in the unit area of landscape analysis the number of patches per unit land area and the total fragmented area also increased. The forests that escaped fragmentation were either inaccessible to humans or had rigorous legal protection. Anthropogenic activities appeared to be one of the factors responsible for fragmentation but, natural factors also contributed.     

Influence of grain size on species-habitat models

High resolution remote sensing data facilitate the use of small-scale habitat features such as trees or hedges in the analysis of species-habitat relationships. Such data potentially enable more accurate species-habitat mapping than lower resolution data. Here, for the first time, we systematically investigated this hypothesis by altering the spatial resolution from 1 m up to 1000 m grain size in species-habitat models of 13 bird species. The study area covered the Nidda river catchment in central Germany, a large heterogeneous landscape of 1620 km². A high resolution habitat map of the area was converted to coarser spatial and thematic resolutions in seven steps. We investigated how model performance responded to grain size, and we compared the differential effects of spatial resolution and thematic resolution on model performance. Explained deviance (D²) of the bird models generally decreased with coarser spatial resolution of the data, although it did not decrease monotonically in all species. On average across all species, model D² decreased from 41.5 at 1 m grain size to 15.9 at 1000 m grain size. Ten species were best modelled at 1 m, two species at 3 m and one species at 32 m grain size. Model performance degraded continuously with increasing grain size, both in habitat generalist and habitat specialist bird species, and was systematically lower in habitat generalists. The higher model performance observed at finer grain sizes was most likely caused by the combination of three factors: (1) high spatial accuracy of bird records and (2) a more precise location and delineation of habitat features and, (3) to a lesser degree, by more habitat types differentiated in maps of finer resolution. We conclude that higher spatial and thematic resolution data can be essential for deriving accurate predictions on bird distribution patterns from species-habitat models. Especially for bird species that are sensitive to specific land-use types or to small-scaled habitat features, a grain size of 1-3 m seems most promising.     

Land cover and land use changes in a Brazilian Cerrado landscape: drivers,processes, and patterns

The Cerrado is one of the most threatened biomes in South America. To create protection actions on any scale, understanding drivers and consequences of land cover and land use (LC and LU) is essential. This study defines the composition and configuration of a Cerrado landscape watershed from 1975 to 2011. Using Landsat images and socioeconomic census data, we determined the forces acting on LC and LU change processes and their consequences. LC classes differ from LU classes for landscape dominance and processes. Economic opportunities drove LU change and its spatial distribution was related to soil, streams, and roads. Deforestation was the main cause of forest loss but forest degradation was also important, with both presenting different patterns. The spatial distribution of bare soil was related to pasture in degradation and streams. Bare soil distribution was related to pasture in degradation and streams. We concluded that broad scale factors drove changes, but local features determined distribution, and that watershed conservation plans should act on different scales, with management being spatially explicit.     

Ecological effects associated with land-use change in China's southwest agricultural landscape

Research on land-use and land-cover change, with associated effects on the ecoenvironment, is a key to understanding global change. The concept of 'ecosystem services' is also a hot issue in ecology and ecological economics. In this study, ecosystem service values are used to assess the ecological values of corresponding land-use types, so as to evaluate the ecological effects of regional land-use change. China's southwest agricultural landscape has unique ecological functions; but it also belongs to an ecologically fragile zone. Consequently, land-use change and associated ecological effects must be monitored to assure sustainable development of this area. Based on TM images in 1988, 1994 and 1999, the landscape classification maps of Yongsheng County were assessed using supervised classification and interactive modification methods. The transition matrix of land-use types and three indices of spatial patterns, patch-level, class-level and landscape-level indices, were calculated using models and GIS to examine the spatial patterns and dynamics of land use in the study area. The results show the influences of human activities and natural environmental elements, and that unused land has decreased rapidly, together with a continuous increase in forest during the past 11 years. There are also frequent intermediate transitions between farmland and unused land. An index for landscape diversity shows a tendency to increase, indicating that the proportions of each landscape element tended to average. Also, the decrease in the fractal dimension of unused land reveals that the effects of human activity are increasing. Ecological value calculations show that land-use change in Yongsheng County from 1988–1999 has resulted in positive ecological effects, with distinct spatial differences.