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1.
Jay D. Evans 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,44(1):35-42
Most social groups have the potential for reproductive conflict among group members. Within insect societies, reproduction
can be divided among multiple fertile individuals, leading to potential conflicts between these individuals over the parentage
of sexual offspring. Colonies of the facultatively polygynous ant Myrmicatahoensis contain from one to several mated queens. In this species, female sexuals were produced almost exclusively by one queen.
The parentage of male sexuals was more complex. In accordance with predictions based on worker sex-allocation preferences,
male-producing colonies tended to have low levels of genetic relatedness (i.e., high queen numbers). Correspondingly, males
were often reared from the eggs of two or more queens in the nest. Further, over half of the males produced appeared to be
the progeny of fertile workers, not of queens. Overall investment ratios were substantially more male biased than those predicted
by genetic relatedness, suggesting hidden costs associated with the production of female sexuals. These costs are likely to
include local resource competition among females, most notably when these individuals are adopted by their maternal nest.
Received: 3 March 1998 / Accepted after revision: 20 June 1998 相似文献
2.
Summary Field observations and laboratory experiments demonstrate that in the Australian meat ant, Iridomyrmex purpureus, the modes of colony founding are remarkably diverse. New colonies can originate from single foundresses (haplometrosis), or foundress associations (pleometrosis), or by colony budding, or the adoption of newly-mated queens that dig founding chambers next to mature nests (probably their natal nests, as workers protect them and may help them dig). Readoption of foundresses and pleometrosis lead to the coexistence of several queens in one nest. We discovered a striking antagonistic behavior among coexisting queens in young colonies, in the form of ritualized antennation bouts. These interactions result in a reproductive rank order in which dominant queens inhibit egg-laying by subordinates, but escalation into physical fighting is rare. Workers ignore queen dominance interactions and treat all queens equally. The first quantitative ethogram of dominance display behavior between multiple ant queens, and its reproductive consequences, is presented. As a colony grows, queens become intolerant of each other's presence and permanently separate within the nest. Once separated, queens appear to be equal in status, laying approximately equal numbers of eggs. All queens continue to be tolerated by workers, even when the colony has reached a size of several thousand workers and begun to produce reproductives. Such mature nests of I. purpureus fulfill the criteria of oligogyny, defined by worker tolerance toward more than one queen and antagonism among queens, such that a limited number of fully functional queens are spaced far apart within a single colony. Oligogynous colonies can arise in this species by pleometrotic founding (primary oligogyny) or by adoption of queens into existing nests (secondary oligogyny). The adaptive significance of the complex system of colony founding, queen dominance and oligogyny in I. purpureus is discussed. 相似文献
3.
Queen control of egg fertilization in the honey bee 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
The study investigated the precision with which honey bee queens can control the fertilization of the eggs they lay. Because
males and workers are reared in different-sized cells, the honey bee is one of the few Hymenoptera in which it is possible
for the experimenter to know which type of egg a queen “intends” to lay. Eggs were collected from both worker and drone (male)
cells from four honey bee colonies. Ploidy of the embryo was determined using polymorphic DNA microsatellites. All 169 eggs
taken from worker cells were heterozygous at at least one microsatellite locus showing that the egg was fertilized. All 129
eggs taken from drone cells gave a single band at the B124 locus, strongly suggesting haploidy. These data show that honey
bee queens have great, and quite possibly complete, ability to control the fertilization of the eggs they lay. Data from the
literature suggest that in two species of parasitoid Hymenoptera (Copidosoma floridanum, Colpoclypeus florus) females have great, but not complete, ability to control fertilization.
Received: 23 December 1997 / Accepted after revision: 17 May 1998 相似文献
4.
M. T. Henshaw J. E. Strassmann D. C. Queller 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2000,48(6):478-483
When cooperation is based on shared genetic interests, as in most social insect colonies, mechanisms which increase the genetic
similarity of group members may help to maintain sociality. Such mechanisms can be especially important in colonies with many
queens because within-colony relatedness drops quickly as queen number increases. Using microsatellite markers, we examined
the Old World, multiple-queen, swarm-founding wasp Polybioides tabidus which belongs to the ropalidiine tribe, and found that relatedness among the workers was four times higher than what would
be expected based on queen number alone. Relatedness was elevated by a pattern of queen production known as cyclical oligogyny,
under which, queen number varies, and daughter queens are produced only after the number of old queens has reduced to one
or a very few. As a result, the queens are highly related, often as full sisters, elevating relatedness among their progeny,
the workers. This pattern of queen production is driven by collective worker control of the sex ratios. Workers are three
times more highly related to females than to males in colonies with a single queen while they are more equally related to
males and females in colonies with more queens. As a result of this difference, workers will prefer to produce new queens
in colonies with a single queen and males in colonies with many queens. Cyclical oligogyny has also evolved independently
in another group of swarm-founding wasps, the Neotropical epiponine wasps, suggesting that collective worker control of sex
ratios is widespread in polistine wasps.
Received: 22 May 2000 / Revised: 24 August 2000 / Accepted: 4 September 2000 相似文献
5.
Lack of kin recognition in swarming honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Honeybee colonies reproduce by colony fission and swarming. The primary swarm leaves the nest with the mated mother queen.
Further “after-swarms” can leave the nest. These are composed of virgin queens and sister workers. Since all workers in the
primary swarm have the same relationship to the mother queen, kin recognition cannot have any effect on the worker distribution
in the swarm. Because of polyandry of the mother queen, the after-swarm is composed of super- and halfsister workers of the
virgin queen. In this case kin recognition might affect swarm composition if workers increase their inclusive fitness by preferentially
investing in a supersister queen. The distribution of workers in the mother colony, the primary and the after-swarm was analyzed
using single-locus DNA fingerprinting in two colonies of the honeybee (Apis mellifera). The colonies were composed of 21 and 24 worker subfamilies because of multiple mating of the queen. The subfamily distribution
in the mother colonies before swarming was significantly different from the subfamily frequencies in the primary swarm. This
indicates different propensities for swarming in the various subfamilies. The subfamily distribution was also significantly
different between the mother colony and the after-swarm. There was however no significant difference between the subfamily
composition of the primary and the after-swarm. The average effects of kin recognition on the distribution of the subfamilies
in the two after-swarms were less than 2%. We conclude that colony-level selection sets the evolutionary framework for swarming
behaviour.
Received: 22 May 1996 / Accepted after revision: 2 November 1996 相似文献
6.
T. Giraud R. Blatrix C. Poteaux M. Solignac P. Jaisson 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2001,49(2-3):128-134
Gnamptogenys striatula is a polygynous ant species, in which all workers are potentially able to mate. The reproductive status, relatedness and
pedigree relationships among nestmate queens and winged females in a Brazilian population were investigated. We collected
all the sexual females of 12 colonies (2–44 queens per colony, plus 2–18 winged females in 3 colonies). Dissections revealed
that 98% of the queens were inseminated and that the queens in the most polygynous colonies did not lay equal numbers of eggs.
The sexual females and a sample of the population were genotyped using eight microsatellite markers. Relatedness among nestmate
queens was among the highest recorded to date (0.65±0.25), and tests of pedigree relationship showed that they were likely
to be full-sisters, and sometimes cousins. Mated winged females were always full-sisters, the estimated genetically effective
queen numbers were low and tests of pedigree relationship showed that only a few queens in the colony could be the mothers.
These results suggest that the high queen-queen relatedness in polygynous colonies of G. striatula is maintained by an unusual mechanism: winged females are mostly produced by only one or a few queens, and these groups of
full-sisters are recruited back into their original nest after mating.
Received: 26 November 1999 / Revised: 7 September 2000 / Accepted: 7 September 2000 相似文献
7.
Multiple-queen (polygyne) colonies of the introduced fire ant Solenopsis invicta present a paradox for kin selection theory. Egg-laying queens within these societies are, on average, unrelated to one another,
and the numbers of queens per colony are high, so that workers appear to raise new sexuals that are no more closely related
to them than are random individuals in the population. This paradox could be resolved if workers discriminate between related
and unrelated nestmate sexuals in important fitness-related contexts. This study examines the possibility of such nepotism
using methods that combine the following features: (1) multiple relevant behavioral assays, (2) colonies with an unmanipulated
family structure, (3) multiple genetic markers with no known phenotypic effects, and (4) a statistical technique for distinguishing
between nepotism and potentially confounding phenomena. We estimated relatedness between interactants in polygyne S. invicta colonies in two situations, workers tending egg-laying queens and workers feeding maturing winged queens. In neither case
did we detect a significant positive value of relatedness that would implicate nepotism. We argue that the non-nepotistic
strategies displayed by these ants reflect historical selection pressures experienced by native populations, in which nestmate
queens are highly related to one another. The markedly different genetic structure in native populations may favor the operation
of stronger higher-level selection that effectively opposes weaker individual-level selection for nepotistic interactions
within nests.
Received: 28 June 1996 / Accepted after revision: 6 October 1996 相似文献
8.
A. D. Tucker H. I. McCallum C. J. Limpus K. R. McDonald 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,44(2):85-90
We compared natal dispersals of freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) against the prediction of male dispersal bias for a polygynous mating system. The crocodiles inhabited a linear series of
pools and we calculated the net distances from natal pools to recapture locations some 12–18 years later, at maturity. Philopatry
was assessed in terms of adult social distances. A female social distance was 0.46 pools and a male social distance was 1.0
pool. By these criteria, both sexes showed low levels of philopatry (7–12%). However, individuals of both sexes dispersed
from the natal site long before they were sexually mature. Divergence in dispersal patterns by sex occurred after the maturity
threshold, as males dispersed two to three times farther than females. Intrasexual competition by males is resolved by a size-based
hierarchy. The displacement of small males from local mating access is a probable cause of the longer dispersals undertaken
by males. Competition, rather than inbreeding avoidance, is driving dispersal in this population of freshwater crocodiles.
Received: 8 May 1998 / Accepted after revision: 26 June 1998 相似文献
9.
Control of reproduction in social insect colonies: individual and collective relatedness preferences in the paper wasp, Polistes annularis 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
David C. Queller J. M. Peters Carlos R. Solís Joan E. Strassmann 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(1):3-16
Social insect colonies often have one or a few queens. How these queens maintain their reproductive monopoly, when other
colony members could gain by sharing in the reproduction, is not generally known. DNA microsatellite genotyping is used to
determine reproductive interests of various classes of colony members in the paper wasp, Polistes annularis. The relatedness estimates show that the best outcome for most individuals is to be the reproductive egg-layer. For workers,
this depends on the sex of offspring: they should prefer to lay their own male eggs, but are indifferent if the queen lays
the female eggs. The next-best choice is usually to support the current queen. As a rule, subordinates and workers should
prefer the current queen to reproduce over other candidates (though subordinates have no strong preference for the queen over
other subordinates, and workers may prefer other workers as a source of male eggs). This result supports the theory that reproductive
monopoly stems from the collective preferences of non-reproductives, who suppress each other in favor of the queen. However,
we reject the general hypothesis of collective worker control in this species because its predictions about who should succeed
after the death of the present queen are not upheld. The first successor is a subordinate foundress even though workers should
generally prefer a worker successor. If all foundresses have died, an older worker succeeds as queen, in spite of a collective
worker preference for a young worker. The results support the previous suggestion that age serves as a conventional cue serving
to reduce conflict over queen succession.
Received: 3 May 1996 / Accepted after revision: 22 September 1996 相似文献
10.
Multiple mating is likely to be costly for ant queens and yet it is common. Whether multiple mating brings benefits to queens
that outweigh the costs has, therefore, received considerable theoretical attention. Empirical tests of hypotheses have been
scarce and no clear evidence has been reported. We tested the “multiple-mating-for-more-sperm” hypothesis on individual young
queens in a natural population of the leafcutter ant Atta colombica, a monogynous ant characterised by very large colonies and high colony longevity. We found that the number of sperm stored
by queens was positively correlated with the number of mates per queen estimated through mother-offspring analysis with microsatellite
DNA markers. Queen sperm stores increased on average by 30 million sperm for each additional mate. Life-history information
for Atta indicate that the number of stored sperm observed is likely to constrain the reproductive lifespan of queens in nature. Multiple
mating, despite costs, may therefore enhance the fitness of Atta queens because it enables them to store more sperm.
Received: 19 September 1997 / Accepted after revision: 7 December 1997 相似文献
11.
We document the variation in number of queens occurring naturally in founding, immature and mature nests of the ant Formica podzolica, and compare development of colonies and survivorship of queens in experimental nests started with 1–16 foundresses. Number of queens per nest was associated with stage of colony development. Most nests were monogynous, but 20% of immature nests (n = 66) and 25% of mature nests (n = 92) were oligogynous or polygynous. Colonies were usually established by single queens (i.e., haplometrosis), but colony establishment by multiple queens (i.e., pleometrotis) was also common, occurring in 27% of founding nests (n = 492). Foundress groups in the field were small ( = 1.47 ± 0.04 queens/nest), and large groups experienced high mortality and low productivity in artificial nests. Therefore, the many queens (up to 140) in some immature and mature colonies were probably secondarily pleometrotic. Experimental nests started with 1–4 queens were more successful than those initiated by 8 or 16 queens. Small groups (2–4 queens) produced more pupae before the first nests reared workers than single foundresses or larger groups (8 or 16 queens). Although single foundresses were less productive than queens in small groups, they experienced greater survivorship and less weight loss than queens in pleometrotic associations. Besides low productivity, queen mortality and weight loss were greatest in large groups. 相似文献
12.
C. Tate Holbrook Christoph-Peter Strehl Robert A. Johnson Jürgen Gadau 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2007,62(2):229-236
The evolution of polyandry is a central problem in the study of insect mating systems, and both material and genetic benefits
have been proposed to offset the presumed costs of multiple mating. Although most eusocial Hymenoptera queens mate with just
one or occasionally two males, high levels of polyandry are exhibited by several taxa, including seed-harvester ants of the
genus Pogonomyrmex. Previous studies of queen mating frequency in Pogonomyrmex have focused on monogynous (one queen per colony) species in the subgenus Pogonomyrmex. We performed a genetic mother–offspring analysis of mating frequency in Pogonomyrmex (Ephebomyrmex) pima, a queen-dimorphic species with dealate and intermorph queens that differ in colony structure (intermorph colonies contain
multiple queens). Our results demonstrate that both dealate and intermorph queens of P. (E.) pima are typically single maters, unlike their congeners analyzed thus far. Polyandry appears to be a derived trait in Pogonomyrmex, but comparative tests between P. (E.) pima queen morphs and across the genus provide no evidence that it evolved as an adaptation to increase genetic diversity within
colonies or to obtain more sperm, respectively. 相似文献
13.
Dorte Bekkevold Jane Frydenberg Jacobus J. Boomsma 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1999,46(2):103-109
Queen mating frequency of the facultatively polygynous ant Acromyrmex echinatior was investigated by analysing genetic variation at an (AG)n repeat microsatellite locus in workers and sexuals of 20 colonies from a single Panamanian population. Thirteen colonies
were found to be monogynous, 5 colonies contained multiple queens, whereas the queen number of 2 colonies remained unresolved.
Microsatellite genotypes indicated that 12 out of 13 queens were inseminated by multiple males (polyandry). The mean queen
mating frequency was 2.53 and the mean genetically effective paternity frequency was 2.23. These values range among the highest
found in ants, and the results are in keeping with the high mating frequencies reported for other species of leafcutter ants.
Consistent skew in the proportional representation of different patrilines within colonies was found, and this remained constant
in two consecutive samples of offspring. Dissections showed that all examined queens from multiple-queen colonies were mated
egg-layers. The mean relatedness value among nestmate workers in polygynous colonies was lower than that for monogynous colonies.
No diploid males were detected in a sample of 70 genotyped males. Worker production of males was detected in one queenless
colony. We discuss our findings in relation to known patterns of multiple maternity and paternity in other eusocial Hymenoptera.
Received: 2 September 1998 / Received in revised form: 3 February 1999 / Accepted: 7 February 1999 相似文献
14.
Sex ratios were bimodally distributed in a population of the monogynous and monandrous ant Leptothorax nylanderi during each of 3 study years. The population-wide investment ratios suggested worker control of sex allocation. Nest-level
variation in the proportional investment in virgin queens was not affected by the presence or absence of a queen and only
slightly by collecting year, but was correlated with nest size, total sexual investment and, unexpectedly, with differences
in nestmate relatedness: small, low-investment nests and nests with several worker lineages produced male-biased sex ratios.
Colonies containing several worker lineages arise from usurpation of mature colonies by unrelated founding queens and the
fusion of unrelated colonies under strong nest site limitation. In contrast to facultatively polygynous and polyandrous species
of social insects, where workers can maximize their inclusive fitness by adjusting sex ratios according to the degree of relatedness
asymmetry, workers in mixed colonies of L. nylanderi do not benefit from manipulating sex allocation, as here relatedness asymmetries appear to be the same as in homogeneous
colonies.
Received: 7 December 1999 / Received in revised form: 29 February 2000 / Accepted: 13 March 2000 相似文献
15.
Detailed knowledge of the mating system in specific social insect populations is essential for testing general evolutionary
hypotheses of multiple paternity in eusocial Hymenoptera. We have studied the mating frequency of queens in a polygynous population
of the red ant Myrmica sulcinodis. Genetic mother-offspring analysis showed that double mating occurred at a considerable frequency, but that the effective
number of queen-mates remained close to one. After quantifying the effects of multiple maternity (polygyny) and multiple paternity
(polyandry) on the genetic diversity of workers, we conclude that multiple paternity in M. sulcinodis did not evolve as an adaptation to increase genetic variation within colonies. Contrary to the predictions from `genetic
variability' hypotheses, we found a positive correlation between colony-specific queen number and the average number of mates
per queen. Such positive association of queen number and frequency of multiple mating was also found after analysing comparative
data across six species of Myrmica ants. These results suggest that resticted dispersal of young queens may be a common factor promoting both polygyny and polyandry
at the same time, and that moderate degrees of multiple mating may be an unselected consequence of (1) mating at low cost
when mating occurs close to the nest and (2) mating in swarms with a highly male biased operational sex ratio. Future comparative
tests of genetic-variability hypotheses should therefore not include species with such evolutionary derived mating system
characteristics.
Received: 30 April 1998 / Accepted after revision: 19 August 1998 相似文献
16.
Past reproductive success affects future habitat selection 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
Paul V. Switzer 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(5):307-312
Correlational studies have shown that an individual's past reproductive success often increases its breeding site fidelity
(i.e., the tendency to return to a previously occupied location), suggesting that individuals use their reproductive experience
to assess habitat quality. However, the causality of the relationship between reproductive success and site fidelity is still
uncertain. In a field experiment, the effect of mating success on site fidelity was isolated from potential confounding variables
in a territorial dragonfly, the eastern amberwing (Perithemis tenera). The experiment controlled for site quality, intrinsic characteristics of males, previous territorial experience at the
site, arrival order, and territorial evictions. Males that were prevented from mating were much more likely to change sites
the following day than control males that were allowed to mate. This result was not affected by age, the amount of time a
male spent on the site, or mortality. These results imply that individuals use their own reproductive success to assess the
quality of the habitat. The benefit to an individual of using its reproductive success to determine habitat quality is discussed
relative to other sources of information.
Received: 31 May 1996 / Accepted: 31 January 1997 相似文献
17.
Allison J. Abell 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,41(4):217-226
The association between spatial proximity and paternity was studied in a population of the striped plateau lizard, Sceloporus virgatus. The relationship between estimated mating success and male phenotypic traits was examined for a sample of 55 males. DNA
samples were obtained from 13 female-offspring families. The males with the closest spatial proximity to each female were
tested as possible sires within each family. Fingerprinting with two multilocus hypervariable minisatellite probes revealed
a strong correspondence between male-female spatial proximity and actual paternity. Paternity could be assigned for 72 of
the 100 hatchlings. Most hatchlings with identifiable sires were attributed to a male with the highest category of spatial
proximity to the mother. However, there was a low to moderate level of multiple paternity within clutches, and for some clutches
probable sires could not be identified even though the most likely behavioural candidates were tested. Thus, nonterritorial
males or other males lacking strong social and spatial relationships with females may achieve some degree of reproductive
success. Analysis of mating success revealed that male success increased with body size, up to a point beyond which larger
size conferred no advantage.
Received: 7 January 1997 / Accepted after revision: 16 June 1997 相似文献
18.
J. Cnaani G. E. Robinson G. Bloch D. Borst A. Hefetz 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2000,47(5):346-352
Endocrine analyses were used to investigate the well-known association between queen production and the onset of worker reproduction
(termed the competition phase, CPh) in Bombus terrestris. Larvae that reached the age of 5 days before the CPh had a worker-like profile: low juvenile hormone (JH) biosynthesis rates
and low JH hemolymph titers. In contrast, larvae that reached the age of 5 days during the CPh had a queen-like profile: high
JH biosynthesis rates and high hemolymph JH levels. Larval fate could be manipulated by transplanting egg cells into host
colonies with different social structures. There was a steep rise in JH production in larvae transplanted into colonies near
or during the CPh. This indicates that during colony development, larvae switch from the ”worker developmental pathway” to
the ”queen developmental pathway,” and that the switch is socially regulated. In small rearing groups, larvae reared with
queens before the CPh developed into workers, whereas those reared with queens after the CPh developed into queens. Variation
in worker type (naive or experienced) did not affect caste determination. Therefore, we hypothesize that queens produce a
pheromone that directly inhibits queen differentiation by larvae. We also present two alternative scenarios that explain the
timing of gyne production in B. terrestris, one based on ecological constraints and the other based on queen-worker competition.
Received: 20 October 1999 / Received in revised form: 18 December 1999 / Accepted: 23 January 2000 相似文献
19.
Brood sex ratio is dependent on female mating status in polygynous great reed warblers 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Isao Nishiumi 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,44(1):9-14
Females capable of adjusting the sex ratio of their offspring should be more fit than females lacking such an ability. In
polygynous birds where breeding success in males is more strongly influenced by body size and/or attractiveness than in females,
females might produce more sons when predicting good conditions or when mating with attractive males. Polygynous great reed
warbler, Acrocephalusarundinaceus, males direct most of their feeding effort to the primary (first-hatching) nest and in these nests increase their feeding
effort in relation to the brood sex ratio (proportion of sons). Therefore, with the expectation of well-nourished sons, we
would predict that females which start breeding first within harems might produce more sons than those which start breeding
later, and in anticipation of sons with good genes, that females mated to polygynous males might produce more sons than females
mated to monogamous males. I took blood samples from hatchlings and determined the sex using DNA markers. The sex ratio of
primary (monogamous and polygynous primary) broods is more male-biased (mean 0.58 males, n = 50) than that of secondary (polygynous secondary and tertiary) broods (mean 0.46, n = 25). Moreover, in the secondary broods with the largest clutch (five eggs), in which offspring are most likely to suffer
food shortage, the sex ratio was distinctively female biased (mean 0.33, n = 10). In the primary broods, sex ratio was correlated to harem size. The results suggest that great reed warbler females
modify the brood sex ratio to produce both well-nourished sons and sons with good genes, but the former effect is probably
stronger than the latter factor.
Received: 11 March 1998 / Accepted after revision: 23 May 1998 相似文献
20.
The mating frequency of queens was estimated for eight attine ant species, Myrmicocrypta ednaella, Apterostigma mayri, Cyphomyrmex costatus, C. rimosus (four lower attines), Trachymyrmex isthmicus, Serico-myrmex amabalis, Acromyrmex octospinosus and Atta colombica (four higher attines), and correlated to colony size, worker polyethism, and sex ratio. Mating frequency was calculated from
within-colony relatedness estimated by CAP-PCR DNA fingerprinting. Most queens of lower attines and T. isthmicus mated with only one male, while those of the three higher attines mated with multiple males. Mating frequency was positively
correlated with colony size. Polyethism among workers was dependent on worker age in lower attines but on body size in higher
attines, suggesting some correlation between mating frequency (i.e., within-colony gene diversity) and caste complexity. The
sex ratio was biased toward females in species where the mating frequency equaled one, but toward males in species where the
mating frequency was greater than two. Changing in nest site from ground surface to deep underground may have facilitated
the evolution of large colony size in Attini, and this may have resulted in the evolution of polyandry (a queen mates with
multiple males). With the evolution of polyandry in higher attines, Atta and Acromyrmex in particular have generated high genetic diversity within their colonies and complex social structures.
Received: 26 October 1999 / Revised: 25 May 2000 / Accepted: 24 June 2000 相似文献