镧改性沸石改良太湖底泥的磷吸附特征

采用镧改性沸石对太湖底泥进行改良,通过吸附试验分析镧改性沸石改良太湖底泥的磷酸盐吸附特征.结果表明,Langmuir和Freundlich等温吸附模型可以较好地描述太湖底泥对水体中较高浓度磷酸盐(1～15 mg·L-1)的吸附平衡,根据Langmuir吸附方程,未改良太湖底泥对水体中磷的最大吸附容量为791 mg·kg-1,镧改性沸石添加量为10、25和50 g·kg-1的改良太湖底泥对水体中磷的最大吸附容量分别为937、1 037和1 505mg.kg-1.准二级动力学模型可以较好地描述太湖底泥对磷酸盐的吸附动力学过程.太湖底泥对磷酸盐的去除能力随pH值增加而降低,其对磷酸盐的吸附属于自发和吸热过程.改良太湖底泥对磷酸盐的吸附能力明显高于未改良太湖底泥,并且其吸附能力随镧改性沸石添加量的增加而增加.镧改性沸石添加量为10～50 g · kg-1的改良太湖底泥的磷吸附-解吸平衡浓度为0.129～0.241 mg·L-1,明显低于未改良太湖底泥(0.386 mg·L-1).被改良底泥中镧改性沸石所吸附的磷以NaOH-P和HCl-P等较稳定的形态存在,厌氧状态下不易释放.     

黄河上中游水体沉积物对磷酸盐的吸附/释放行为

研究了黄河上中游8个沉积物磷酸盐的吸附/释放动力学,比较了不同沉积物吸附磷的差别,分析了沉积物磷形态对磷吸附特征的影响.结果表明,沉积物对磷酸盐的吸附与释放均主要在前8 h内完成,在前0.5 h内对磷的吸附和释放速率均最快,在24 h内吸附基本达到平衡;沉积物对磷的等温吸附曲线既符合线性方程和Freundlich模型,同时也较好地符合Langmuir模型.据Langmuir模型计算得出沉积物对磷的最大吸附容量为0.095～0.272 mg·g-1,且最大吸附容量与沉积物总磷、可交换态磷和有机质含量呈显著正相关;沉积物在相应的上覆水中对磷酸盐的吸附过程存在一个吸附/解吸平衡点,对应的吸附/解吸平衡质量浓度为0.009～0.031 mg·L-1,均大于相应上覆水体中磷浓度,说明沉积物有向上覆水释磷的趋势.     

磷酸盐对水稻土团聚体不同类型重金属镉、铬（Ⅵ）吸附的影响

利用低能量超声波分散、虹吸法沉降分离的方法分离不同粒径的水稻土团聚体颗粒,采用恒温振荡法研究不同浓度磷酸盐预处理的团聚体对Cd2+、Cr(Ⅵ)平衡吸附以及吸附动力学的影响。结果表明,砂粒级、粗粉砂级、粉砂级和粘粒级对P吸附量分别小于50、46、50和97 mg?kg-1,Cd2+吸附量低于未处理土样,P吸附量大于该数值,Cd2+吸附量高于未处理土样,团聚体吸附磷酸盐对Cd2+吸附量的影响,表现为低P吸附量抑制Cd2+的吸附,高P吸附量促进Cd2+的吸附,即随P吸附量增加Cd2+的吸附量呈波谷形变化;而团聚体吸附磷酸盐后对Cr(Ⅵ)的吸附则表现明显的抑制作用。磷酸盐预处理的团聚体对Cd2+、Cr(Ⅵ)吸附量大小顺序均为粘粒级>砂粒级>粗粉砂级>粉砂级,与有机质和游离氧化铁的含量顺序一致。团聚体对Cd2+的吸附过程分为快、慢两个阶段,快吸附阶段用一级动力学方程拟合最佳,而慢吸附时段用扩散方程和Elovich方程拟合最佳,表明吸附过程由不同的吸附因素控制。团聚体吸附磷酸盐后对Cd2+的吸附动力学常数增大。团聚体对Cr(Ⅵ)的吸附过程无明显快、慢阶段,对Cr(Ⅵ)吸附的整个过程用双常数速率方程和Elovich方程进行描述最佳,团聚体吸附磷酸盐后对Cr(Ⅵ)的吸附动力学常数减小。磷酸盐对土壤中重金属吸附的影响与金属离子类型以及磷吸附量有关,所以采用磷肥等含磷物质修复重金属污染土壤要注意金属离子的类型和磷肥的施用量。     

不同磷含量和秸秆添加量对褐土镉吸附解吸的影响

采用室内培养的方法,通过人为添加不同量的玉米干秸秆和磷,研究不同含磷量土壤对镉吸附解吸影响,以探讨磷—镉在土壤中的交互作用机制。结果表明,不同含磷量的土壤对不同质量浓度锌镉吸附解吸时,在低质量浓度镉（Cd3）条件下,土壤对镉的吸附量随磷质量分数的增加先升高后降低,解吸量随着土壤中磷质量分数的增加先升高后降低再升高;而在高质量浓度镉（Cd30）条件下,土壤对镉的吸附量随磷质量分数的增加逐渐升高,在相同磷水平下,随外加锌质量浓度的增加,镉的吸附量明显降低,而解吸量则逐渐升高。不同秸秆量土壤对不同质量浓度镉吸附解吸时,在Cd3条件下,土壤对镉的吸附量随秸秆加入量的增加先升高后降低,而在同一质量分数磷情况下,吸附量逐渐下降;土壤对镉的解吸量在磷质量分数为120 mg·kg^-1（P2）时最低,而后随着磷质量分数的增加而增加。在同一质量分数磷水平情况下,随着秸秆添加量的增加,土壤对镉的解吸量逐渐增加。而在Cd30条件下,土壤对镉的吸附量逐渐增加,在同一磷水平情况下,土壤对镉的吸附情况是低量秸秆（C1）〉高量秸秆（C2）,但在磷质量分数为240 mg·kg^-1（P3）水平下,不添加秸秆（C0）情况时镉的吸附量最大,而后降低。土壤对镉的解吸量随着磷含量的增加而增加。在同一磷水平情况下,随着秸秆添加量的增加,土壤对镉的解吸量逐渐增加。     

镧-四氧化三铁-沸石复合材料制备及去除水中磷酸盐和铵

采用La3+、Fe~(2+)、Fe3+和粉末状天然沸石制备了一种镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料,通过批量吸附实验考察了该复合材料对水中磷酸盐和铵的吸附作用.结果表明,镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对水中磷酸盐和铵的单位吸附量随吸附剂投加量的增加而降低,对磷酸盐和铵的去除率随吸附剂投加量的增加而增加.当溶液pH值由6逐渐增加到11时,镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对水中磷酸盐和铵的吸附能力逐渐下降.镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对水中磷酸盐的吸附平衡数据可以采用Langmuir、Freundlich和Dubinin-Redushkevich(D-R)等温吸附模型加以拟合,对铵的吸附平衡数据可以采用Langmuir和D-R等温吸附模型加以拟合.根据Langmuir模型计算得到的镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对水中磷酸盐和铵的最大单位吸附量分别为12.9 mg·g~(-1)(以磷计)和6.99 mg·g~(-1)(以铵计).镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对水中磷酸盐和铵的吸附动力学过程可以采用准二级动力学方程加以描述.升高反应温度增强了镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对水中磷酸盐和铵的吸附.溶液存在的氯离子、硫酸根离子和碳酸氢根离子对镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料吸附磷无负面影响.溶液存在的钾离子对镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料吸附铵的负面影响最大,其次为钠离子,钙离子的负面影响最小.1 mol·L~(-1)NaOH溶液可以使50%左右吸附到吸附剂上的磷酸盐解吸下来.1 mol·L~(-1)NaCl溶液可以使98%左右吸附到吸附剂上的铵解吸下来.当溶液pH值为7时,镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对磷酸盐的吸附机制主要是配位体交换作用.镧-Fe_3O_4-沸石复合材料对铵的吸附机制主要是阳离子交换作用.     

铁锰结核对As(Ⅲ)的吸附和氧化特性研究

研究As(Ⅲ)在土壤中的铁锰结核上的吸附和氧化特征,对理解土壤中As(Ⅲ)的含量变化和制定有效的治理措施有至关重要的作用.以东北地区代表性土壤-棕壤中提取的铁锰结核作为试验材料,采用一次平衡法,对As(Ⅲ)在铁锰结核上的吸附和氧化特性,及其动力学特征进行了研究.研究结果表明,反应是包括吸附和氧化反应的复杂过程.初始质量浓度在1～15 mg·L~(-1)的范围内时,随着初始质量浓度的提高,吸附量随之增大,Mn的释放量增加,初始质量浓度在15～30 mg·L~(-1)的范围内时,吸附量的增加缓慢,Mn的释放量也接近平衡,吸附曲线可用Langmuir方程及Freundlich方程拟合(r>0.97),铁锰结核对As(Ⅲ)具有较强的吸附性能,最大吸附量达到了3 000 mg·kg~(-1).动力学实验中,反应在24 h内趋于饱和,可用Freundlich模型描述.氧化反应后释放到溶液中的As(V)质量浓度随时间变化先升高后降低,大多数的As(V)都被吸附在了铁锰结核表面,说明铁锰结核对砷具有很好的吸附和解毒作用.Mn的释放量在6 h时基本达到平衡.释放到溶液中的Mn质量浓度与时间符合Elovich动力学方程.     

牛粪源生物炭对水中甲基紫的吸附动力学和热力学

600℃缺氧热解制得牛粪源生物炭(CBC),采用SEM、FTIR和XRD等分析手段对生物炭理化性质进行表征,并通过静态平衡吸附法研究了CBC对甲基紫的吸附动力学及热力学过程.结果表明,甲基紫的吸附量随着其初始浓度的增加而增大,初始浓度由10 mg·L~(-1)增加到40 mg·L~(-1),平衡吸附量由5 mg·g~(-1)提高到30 mg·g~(-1),吸附过程先快后慢,60 min后吸附达到平衡;甲基紫的吸附量还随溶液pH的增加而增大,随温度的升高而增大;用准一级动力学方程、准二级动力学方程、Langmuir吸附等温方程、Freundlich吸附等温方程对试验数据进行拟合,结果表明,准二级动力学模型更准确地反映其吸附动力学过程,Freundlich等温方程与实验数据拟合度更好,即甲基紫在CBC上的吸附以化学吸附为主;吸附热力学参数ΔG~o0、ΔS~o0、ΔH~o0,表明甲基紫在CBC上的吸附是自发进行的吸热过程.     

湿地沉积物对铊、镉的吸附性能

为了研究广州大学城湾咀头湿地公园(D)和南沙湿地公园(N)表层沉积物对典型重金属铊(Tl)和镉(Cd)吸附性能的研究,采用静态批处理实验,探讨了pH、沉积物中有机质含量、反应时间、Tl(Ⅰ)和Cd(Ⅱ)的初始浓度、温度等因素对吸附的影响.结果表明,溶液初始浓度为10 mg·L~(-1),随溶液初始pH值的升高,沉积物对Tl(Ⅰ)和Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附量增大,在pH 3.0—9.0时,沉积物D和N对Tl(Ⅰ)均达到较大的吸附量,分别为159.5 mg·kg~(-1)和156.7 mg·kg~(-1);在pH值为2.0—6.0时,对Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附急剧增大,沉积物D的吸附量达到了220.1 mg·kg~(-1),沉积物N的值则达到247.8 mg·kg~(-1),当pH6.0时,吸附量呈下降趋势;沉积物中的有机质对Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附有显著影响,对Tl(Ⅰ)吸附影响程度小于Cd(Ⅱ).动力学实验显示,沉积物对Tl(Ⅰ)和Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附过程迅速,分别在4 h和1 h达到平衡;沉积物对Tl(Ⅰ)和Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附与准二级动力学拟合程度高(R20.99),由此可知该吸附过程为化学吸附.等温吸附实验表明,随Tl(Ⅰ)和Cd(Ⅱ)初始浓度增加,沉积物的吸附量也随之上升,当温度升高时,沉积物对Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附量增大,对Tl(Ⅰ)的吸附效果则相反;沉积物对Tl(Ⅰ)和Cd(Ⅱ)的吸附效果用Langmuir和Freundlich方程拟合均较好.     

给水厂残泥-海藻酸钠胶珠对磷的吸附特性

为解决给水厂残泥(WTR)作为磷吸附材料用于水处理工艺时存在的沉降性能差和易堵塞等问题,本研究利用海藻酸钠包埋法制备了给水厂残泥-海藻酸钠(WTR-SA)胶珠,考察了WTR-SA胶珠对磷的吸附与解吸附特征.研究结果表明WTR-SA胶珠对磷的动力学吸附过程符合准二级动力学方程(R~2=0.9957),Freundlich方程能较好描述其对磷的等温吸附过程(R~2=0.9907),Langmuir方程模拟得到的磷饱和吸附量为1.878 mg·g~(-1);随着溶液pH的升高,WTR-SA胶珠对磷的吸附量呈现先上升后下降的趋势,在pH5时吸附量最高;WTR-SA胶珠对磷的吸附稳定,在接近饱和吸附量条件下,磷的解吸率仅为0.72%;磷分级提取结果表明磷主要以稳定的铝结合态、铁结合态和钙结合态存在于WTR-SA胶珠中,3种赋存形态含量占比分别为43.2%、22.7%和21.3%.     

镁改性芦苇生物炭对水环境中磷酸盐的吸附特性

为了实现湿地水生植物资源化利用,加强对水环境中磷污染的控制,以中国东北地区湿地典型水生植物芦苇(Phragmitesaustralis)为生物质材料,在700℃条件下制备成生物炭,用六水合氯化镁作为改性剂对生物炭进行改性,通过SEM和能谱分析对芦苇生物炭改性前后进行表征,发现未改性的芦苇生物炭的电镜呈明显的孔隙结构,孔壁薄,孔隙排列有序,Mg元素含量仅为0.17%;而镁改性芦苇生物炭的孔隙负载了一些针状结构,且Mg元素的含量达到5.04%。说明镁离子成功负载在生物炭的表面。通过SEM、EDS、FTIR、XRD等技术对镁改性芦苇生物炭吸附磷酸盐前后进行表征,发现磷酸盐主要以Mg HPO_4和Mg_3(PO_4)_2的形态吸附在镁改性生物炭上。吸附动力学实验结果表明,镁改性生物炭对磷酸盐的吸附过程符合准二级动力学模型,吸附机理是由物理吸附和化学吸附共同作用的。通过颗粒内扩散模型的分析发现吸附速率由表面吸附、液膜扩散和颗粒内扩散等共同决定。镁改性生物炭对磷酸盐的吸附热力学可以用Langmuir方程描述(R~2=0.938 6),表明该吸附行为主要是单分子层吸附。共存离子实验表明,HCO_3~-和CO_3~(2-)能明显抑制镁改性生物炭对磷酸盐的吸附。经过3次解吸,镁改性生物炭吸附后的磷可全部释放。当温度为308 K,改性剂浓度为2 mol·L~(-1),改性生物炭投加量为2.0 g·L~(-1),p H为7.0时,吸附效果最佳,吸附量可达到2.37 mg·g~(-1)。     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Human Influence and Classical Biogeographic Predictors of Rare Species Occurrence

Biogeographic theory predicts that rare species occur more often in larger, less‐isolated habitat patches and suggests that patch size and connectivity are positive predictors of patch quality for conservation. However, in areas substantially modified by humans, rare species may be relegated to the most isolated patches. We used data from plant surveys of 81 meadow patches in the Georgia Basin of Canada and the United States to show that presence of threatened and endangered plants was positively predicted for patches that were isolated on small islands surrounded by ocean and for patches that were isolated by surrounding forest. Neither patch size nor connectivity were positive predictors of rare species occurrence. Thus, in our study area, human influence, presumably due to disturbance or introduction of competitive non‐native species, appears to have overwhelmed classical predictors of rare species distribution, such that greater patch isolation appeared to favor presence of rare species. We suggest conservation planners consider the potential advantages of protecting geographically isolated patches in human‐modified landscapes because such patches may represent the only habitats in which rare species are likely to persist. Influencia Humana y Predictores Biogeográficos Clásicos de la Ocurrencia de Especies Raras     

Seasonal dynamics of macro-algae in the South Lake of Tunis

The macro-algae communities observed in the south lake of Tunis are characterized by the predominance of nitrophilous algae which are in the order of biomass importance:Ulva, Cladophora andEnteromorpha. We have noted seasonal changes of alga distribution. The wind appears to be one of the most important factors influencing this distribution. The total biomass reaches a maximum in the spring. Rapid decomposition of the biomass leads to a severe ecological imbalance, resulting in crises of anoxia and fish death. A restoration project has already started. It aims at removal of contaminated muds and the introduction of a new circulation system. The main objectives of this work were to collect information on the distribution and biomass of the phytobenthic communities as a first step in the constitution of a database for further comparison.     

Patterns and biases of climate change threats in the IUCN Red List

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments rely on published data and expert inputs, and biases can be introduced where underlying definitions and concepts are ambiguous. Consideration of climate change threat is no exception, and recently numerous approaches to assessing the threat of climate change to species have been developed. We explored IUCN Red List assessments of amphibians and birds to determine whether species listed as threatened by climate change display distinct patterns in terms of habitat occupied and additional nonclimatic threats faced. We compared IUCN Red List data with a published data set of species’ biological and ecological traits believed to infer high vulnerability to climate change and determined whether distributions of climate change‐threatened species on the IUCN Red List concur with those of climate change‐threatened species identified with the trait‐based approach and whether species possessing these traits are more likely to have climate change listed as a threat on the IUCN Red List. Species in some ecosystems (e.g., grassland, shrubland) and subject to particular threats (e.g., invasive species) were more likely to have climate change as a listed threat. Geographical patterns of climate change‐threatened amphibians and birds on the IUCN Red List were incongruent with patterns of global species richness and patterns identified using trait‐based approaches. Certain traits were linked to increases or decreases in the likelihood of a species being threatened by climate change. Broad temperature tolerance of a species was consistently related to an increased likelihood of climate change threat, indicating counterintuitive relationships in IUCN assessments. To improve the robustness of species assessments of the vulnerability or extinction risk associated with climate change, we suggest IUCN adopt a more cohesive approach whereby specific traits highlighted by our results are considered in Red List assessments. To achieve this and to strengthen the climate change‐vulnerability assessments approach, it is necessary to identify and implement logical avenues for further research into traits that make species vulnerable to climate change (including population‐level threats).     

Interacting Effects of Translocation,Artificial Propagation,and Environmental Conditions on the Marine Survival of Chinook Salmon from the Columbia River,Washington, U.S.A.

Abstract: Captive rearing and translocation are often used concurrently for species conservation, yet the effects of these practices can interact and lead to unintended outcomes that may undermine species’ recovery efforts. Controls in translocation or artificial‐propagation programs are uncommon; thus, there have been few studies on the interacting effects of these actions and environmental conditions on survival. The Columbia River basin, which drains 668,000 km² of the western United States and Canada, has an extensive network of hydroelectric and other dams, which impede and slow migration of anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) and can increase mortality rates. To mitigate for hydrosystem‐induced mortality during juvenile downriver migration, tens of millions of hatchery fish are released each year and a subset of wild‐ and hatchery‐origin juveniles are translocated downstream beyond the hydropower system. We considered how the results of these practices interact with marine environmental conditions to affect the marine survival of Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha). We analyzed data from more than 1 million individually tagged fish from 1998 through 2006 to evaluate the probability of an individual fish returning as an adult relative to its rearing (hatchery vs. wild) and translocation histories (translocated vs. in‐river migrating fish that traveled downriver through the hydropower system) and a suite of environmental variables. Except during select periods of very low river flow, marine survival of wild translocated fish was approximately two‐thirds less than survival of wild in‐river migrating fish. For hatchery fish, however, survival was roughly two times higher for translocated fish than for in‐river migrants. Competition and predator aggregation negatively affected marine survival, and the magnitude of survival depended on rearing and translocation histories and biological and physical conditions encountered during their first few weeks of residence in the ocean. Our results highlight the importance of considering the interacting effects of translocation, artificial propagation, and environmental variables on the long‐term viability of species.     

Systemic retention of ingested cantharidin by frogs

Summary Frogs(Rana pipiens) fed on blister beetles (Meloidae) or cantharidin, retain cantharidin systemically. After cessation of feeding, they void the compound relatively quickly. Systemic cantharidin does not protect frogs against ectoparasitic feeding by leeches(Hirudo medicinalis) or predation by snakes(Nerodia sipedon). As suggested by our data, and from reports in the early literature, ingestion of cantharidin-containing frogs can pose a health threat to humans.Paper no. 95 of the seriesDefense Mechanisms of Arthropods; no. 94 is LaMunyon & Eisner, Psyche (in press)     

Defensive secretion of a flightless grasshopper: Failure to prevent lizard attack

Summary We tested the role of a grasshopper defensive secretion in deterring lizard predation. Adults, but not young larvae, of the chemically defended lubber grasshopperRomalea guttata (=microptera) froth a volatile secretion when attacked by predators. The lizardAnolis carolinensis failed to strike juvenile lubbers (which lack secretion) in laboratory trials. Survivorship of palatable crickets loaded with secretion offered toA. carolinensis was not significantly different from survivorship of control crickets. In experiments designed to investigate if lizards learn an aversion to the secretion, striking times forSceloporus undulatus fed wax worms coated with secretion were not significantly different over three days of trials. Three primary conclusions are drawn from these data. First, the secretion may not be necessary for lubber protection from lizards. Second, lubber secretion does not appear to deter lizards from attacking or eating prey items. Third, lizards do not appear to develop an aversion to the secretion.     

Using a Bayesian network to clarify areas requiring research in a host–pathogen system

Bayesian network analyses can be used to interactively change the strength of effect of variables in a model to explore complex relationships in new ways. In doing so, they allow one to identify influential nodes that are not well studied empirically so that future research can be prioritized. We identified relationships in host and pathogen biology to examine disease‐driven declines of amphibians associated with amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). We constructed a Bayesian network consisting of behavioral, genetic, physiological, and environmental variables that influence disease and used them to predict host population trends. We varied the impacts of specific variables in the model to reveal factors with the most influence on host population trend. The behavior of the nodes (the way in which the variables probabilistically responded to changes in states of the parents, which are the nodes or variables that directly influenced them in the graphical model) was consistent with published results. The frog population had a 49% probability of decline when all states were set at their original values, and this probability increased when body temperatures were cold, the immune system was not suppressing infection, and the ambient environment was conducive to growth of B. dendrobatidis. These findings suggest the construction of our model reflected the complex relationships characteristic of host–pathogen interactions. Changes to climatic variables alone did not strongly influence the probability of population decline, which suggests that climate interacts with other factors such as the capacity of the frog immune system to suppress disease. Changes to the adaptive immune system and disease reservoirs had a large effect on the population trend, but there was little empirical information available for model construction. Our model inputs can be used as a base to examine other systems, and our results show that such analyses are useful tools for reviewing existing literature, identifying links poorly supported by evidence, and understanding complexities in emerging infectious‐disease systems.     

Resembling a Viper: Implications of Mimicry for Conservation of the Endangered Smooth Snake

The phenomenon of Batesian mimicry, where a palatable animal gains protection against predation by resembling an unpalatable model, has been a core interest of evolutionary biologists for 150 years. An extensive range of studies has focused on revealing mechanistic aspects of mimicry (shared education and generalization of predators) and the evolutionary dynamics of mimicry systems (co‐operation vs. conflict) and revealed that protective mimicry is widespread and is important for individual fitness. However, according to our knowledge, there are no case studies where mimicry theories have been applied to conservation of mimetic species. Theoretically, mimicry affects, for example, frequency dependency of predator avoidance learning and human induced mortality. We examined the case of the protected, endangered, nonvenomous smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) that mimics the nonprotected venomous adder (Vipera berus), both of which occur in the Åland archipelago, Finland. To quantify the added predation risk on smooth snakes caused by the rarity of vipers, we calculated risk estimates from experimental data. Resemblance of vipers enhances survival of smooth snakes against bird predation because many predators avoid touching venomous vipers. Mimetic resemblance is however disadvantageous against human predators, who kill venomous vipers and accidentally kill endangered, protected smooth snakes. We found that the effective population size of the adders in Åland is very low relative to its smooth snake mimic (28.93 and 41.35, respectively).Because Batesian mimicry is advantageous for the mimic only if model species exist in sufficiently high numbers, it is likely that the conservation program for smooth snakes will fail if adders continue to be destroyed. Understanding the population consequences of mimetic species may be crucial to the success of endangered species conservation. We suggest that when a Batesian mimic requires protection, conservation planners should not ignore the model species (or co‐mimic in Mullerian mimicry rings) even if it is not itself endangered. Implications of mimicry for Conservation of the endangered smooth snake