造纸污泥工厂化堆肥过程中理化性质的动态变化

工厂化强制通风静态垛好氧堆肥试验结果表明,造纸污泥与木屑按10∶1比例混合后,2~3 d即可达到60℃,高温期维持时间超过10 d,完全符合我国标准CJJ/T52-93规定,达到无害化要求;堆肥过程中堆体上层温度大于下层;高温堆肥后物料含水率降低20.2%,脱水效果明显;造纸污泥堆肥过程中物料的挥发性固体持续降低;堆体耗氧速率在升温阶段后期上升到最大值,此后持续降低,到堆肥后期趋于稳定。     

复合添加剂对污泥堆肥化重金属形态及生物有效性的影响

通过添加不同比例粉煤灰(0%、5%、15%、25%、35%)和生石灰(0%、1%)进行污泥堆肥试验,并将堆肥产品应用于玉米幼苗盆栽试验,研究不同处理对污泥堆肥产品重金属(Zn、Cu、Cd、Ni)形态分布和生物有效性的影响。研究结果可为粉煤灰和生石灰复合添加剂在城市污泥堆肥中的应用提供基础资料和科学依据。结果表明,(1)污泥堆肥过程中,p H值整体呈现上升-稳定下降-稳定的变化规律,重金属Zn、Cu、Cd、Ni含量因稀释效应呈现轻微下降;添加35%粉煤灰和1%生石灰处理,重金属Zn、Cu、Cd、Ni含量达到最小值,分别为611.20、226.18、1.49、68.74 mg?kg~(-1)。(2)Zn、Cd、Ni主要以残渣态形式存在,Cu主要以有机结合态形式存在。随着粉煤灰添加量增加,残渣态、有机结合态、铁锰氧化态Zn、Cd和残渣态、有机结合态Ni含量逐渐增大,交换态、碳酸盐态Zn、Cd、Ni含量逐渐减小,重金属生物有效性下降。(3)施用添加25%粉煤灰和1%生石灰的污泥肥料后,玉米地上部分干重最大为21.2 g,玉米重金属Zn、Cu、Ni、Cd含量均达到最小值19.44、13.73、0.08、0.45 mg?kg~(-1),基质重金属Zn、Ni分别达到最小值79.44、0.75 mg?kg~(-1)。以上结果说明,添加粉煤灰和生石灰进行污泥堆肥化对重金属总量影响不大,但能有效改变重金属形态,降低重金属生物有效性。其中,添加25%粉煤灰与1%生石灰污泥堆肥产品,有利于重金属由不稳定态转变成稳定态,也最有利于玉米幼苗生长。     

蚯蚓-稻壳炭联合堆肥对工业污泥中重金属的影响研究

蚯蚓堆肥相关研究多集中在生活污泥方面,对工业污泥的探索较少。该研究以马鞍山某钢铁污水处理站污泥为例,添加不同比例稻壳炭(2%、4%、8%),设置污泥单独堆肥、稻壳炭与污泥堆肥以及蚯蚓-稻壳炭联合污泥堆肥试验,探索蚯蚓与稻壳炭联合堆肥对工业污泥中重金属形态和生物有效性的影响。研究表明,(1)相比污泥单独堆肥,稻壳炭联合污泥堆肥能增加污泥pH、EC、TP和降低TOC、TN,而蚯蚓联合稻壳炭堆肥污泥可增加TN,并进一步增加污泥EC、TP,显著降低污泥的pH、TOC。(2)稻壳炭堆肥中重金属Zn、Cu、Pb、Cd含量因浓缩效应而上升;而蚯蚓联合稻壳炭堆肥,重金属含量显著下降,添加4%稻壳炭时,重金属Zn、Cu、Pb、Cd质量分数达到最小值,分别为856.64、137.10、158.92、15.48mg·kg-1。(3)重金属形态分析表明,随着稻壳炭比例增加,稻壳炭堆肥中重金属Zn、Cu、Pb、Cd的交换态和碳酸盐结合态转化为残渣态及铁锰氧化态的比例增大,添加8%稻壳炭时DTPA提取的有效态重金属质量分数最低,分别为705.72、47.95、50.43、4.47 mg·kg-1;蚯蚓-稻壳炭联合堆肥会使得污泥中重金属交换态、碳酸盐结合态、铁锰结合态和有机结合态均向残渣态转化,添加4%稻壳炭与蚯蚓的协同转化能力最大,Zn、Cu、Pb、Cd有效态重金属质量分数分别为629.84、38.63、36.76、1.63mg·kg-1,说明稻壳炭添加入蚯蚓堆肥可进一步降低工业污泥中重金属有效性,使重金属钝化。本研究可为稻壳炭联合蚯蚓堆肥处理工业污泥提供参考和科学依据。     

城市污泥好氧堆肥过程中重金属的形态转化

城市污泥是一种富含作物生长需要的多种养分的生物固体废弃物,但重金属问题又成为影响污泥农用的关键因素,而重金属的生物活性、迁移性及毒性不仅取决于总量,很大程度上取决于其存在的形态.该实验通过调节城市污泥的水分和C/N比,利用笔者所在课题组自行开发的好氧堆肥反应器进行城市污泥堆肥处理,经过为期20 d的好氧堆肥处理,研究堆肥前后污泥中的重金属总量和化学形态的变化.实验结果表明:堆肥处理由于添加能源调理剂等,使堆肥产品中的重金属含量低于原污泥,符合了农用污泥污染物控制标准;同时堆肥也改变了重金属的化学形态,降低了剧毒性的Cd的生物有效性.对污泥及堆肥的重金属形态研究发现:大部分重金属主要以残渣态形式存在,生物毒性很小,农用时的重金属污染度也很低.     

粪渣污泥好氧堆肥过程中主要理化性质的动态变化

进行了粪渣污泥的强制通风静态垛堆肥试验,分析了温度、氧气、含水率和挥发性有机物在堆肥不同阶段的变化特征。粪渣与木屑质量1∶1.5的比例下,能够实现快速高温好氧堆肥,堆体温度在高温期持续9d,达到无害化的卫生学要求。堆体耗氧速率在升温阶段后期上升到最大值,此后持续降低,到堆肥后期趋于稳定。据此提出了相应的通风策略。在堆肥过程中,物料的含水率和挥发性有机物含量持续降低,但到堆肥后期趋于稳定,堆肥结束时分别减小17个百分点和10.4个百分点。     

堆肥过程中腐殖质含量变化及其对重金属分配的影响

以H2O和Na4P2O7+NaOH连续浸提污泥堆肥过程中堆体的腐殖酸以及与其结合的重金属,分析腐殖酸及重金属含量随时间的变化规律。结果表明,堆肥过程中重金属主要以胡敏酸(HA)结合态为主,水溶态重金属含量较少,且重金属有效性与迁移性较低;堆肥结束时各水溶态重金属含量减少,HA-Pb、HA-Ni和HA-Cu含量占重金属总量的比例明显升高,与堆肥初始相比分别增加28.00、17.34和1.40百分点,堆肥促进了水溶态重金属向HA结合态转变;HA对几种重金属的固定能力由大到小依次为Cu、Pb、Ni和Zn。     

新型调理剂CTB-2污泥堆肥的氧气时空变化特征研究

采用新型CTB-2调理剂与城市污泥进行堆肥,研究了堆肥过程中氧气、温度的时空变化特征。结果表明,m（CTB-2调理剂）：m（污泥）=1：2能够有效降低污泥容重,改善堆体结构;堆体能够快速升温至高温期并持续7d以上,最终完成无害化;采用该比例的调理剂能够保证堆体的通风供氧,使堆体各层通风后的氧气体积分数都恢复至19％以上,最低氧气体积分数维持在数17％以上;堆肥过程中堆体的氧气体积分数、耗氧速率和温度都具有明显的层次效应,堆体耗氧速率呈先升高后降低的趋势,堆体通风后的氧气和最低氧气体积分数均随着堆肥的进行而增加。     

磷酸盐添加对快速好氧堆肥过程pH及腐熟效果的影响

随着我国环保政策的日趋严格,具有堆肥周期短、产品质量好、二次污染小等优点的反应器快速好氧堆肥工艺受到人们的广泛关注.然而,由于堆肥原料的有机物含量高,导致快速堆肥初期的有机酸累积,堆体pH偏低,影响堆肥效果.本研究拟通过添加磷酸盐,解决剩余污泥反应器快速堆肥过程出现的pH偏低问题.结果表明,添加磷酸盐可有效控制堆体pH,堆肥初期,HPO_4~-通过与有机酸解离产生的H~+反应生成H_2PO~-_4,提高堆体pH,堆肥后期,蛋白质降解产生较多NH~+_4,导致pH升高,堆体中的H_2PO~-_4通过与OH~-结合生成HPO_4~-,降低堆体pH.当HPO_4~-与H_2PO~-_4的摩尔比为2∶5时,堆体pH值可维持在6.0—8.5之间,有机物降解率最高,堆体的NH~+_4-N含量最大,达3.99 mg·g~(-1),堆肥过程的保氮效果较好,且所得堆肥产品的种子发芽指数也较高,腐熟程度良好.     

污泥堆肥过程中主要性质及氮素转变

目前堆肥过程中氮素损失比较严重,通常达到50%左右.针对这一问题,文章以污泥和秸秆为原料,进行了不同配比条件下高温好氧堆肥试验,研究了堆肥过程中各主要性质及各种形态氮素的转化规律.结果表明,堆肥有效实现了污泥无害化、减量化和资源化.在pH值和温度较高条件下的氨气大量挥发是堆肥过程氮素损失的重要途径,且不同的物料配比会对氮素损失造成影响,C/N比低的配比氮素损失较大.适当降低堆料温度、添加酸性物质以降低pH值等措施均可减少氮素损失.     

腐熟堆肥接种对蔬菜废物中高温好氧降解过程的影响

通过不同比例腐熟堆肥接种,进行蔬菜废物高温好氧降解试验,研究接种对蔬菜废物好氧降解过程的影响.结果表明:当接种率为5%,3%和1%时,增加腐熟堆肥接种比例有利于提高有机物的好氧降解率,试验末期有机物降解率分别为53.3%,50.0%和43.7%,糖类和纤维素类降解的差别是其降解率差距的主要来源;腐熟堆肥接种对堆肥过程中微生物演化规律影响明显,但接种率达到一定水平后,接种对生物相的影响会随堆肥过程而逐步消失;通过对微生物相演变与生物质降解过程的相关性分析,表明微生物种群增殖与特定生物质类型降解存在明显的相关性,从而提示了采用按堆肥过程中生物质分类的降解状况分段接种微生物的可能性.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Use of stochastic patch occupancy models in the California red-legged frog for Bayesian inference regarding past events and future persistence

Assessing causes of population decline is critically important to management of threatened species. Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs) are popular tools for examining spatial and temporal dynamics of populations when presence–absence data in multiple habitat patches are available. We developed a Bayesian Markov chain method that extends existing SPOMs by focusing on past environmental changes that may have altered occupancy patterns prior to the beginning of data collection. Using occupancy data from 3 creeks, we applied the method to assess 2 hypothesized causes of population decline—in situ die-off and residual impact of past source population loss—in the California red-legged frog. Despite having no data for the 20–30 years between the hypothetical event leading to population decline and the first data collected, we were able to discriminate among hypotheses, finding evidence that in situ die-off increased in 2 of the creeks. Although the creeks had comparable numbers of occupied segments, owing to different extinction–colonization dynamics, our model predicted an 8-fold difference in persistence probabilities of their populations to 2030. Adding a source population led to a greater predicted persistence probability than did decreasing the in situ die-off, emphasizing that reversing the deleterious impacts of a disturbance may not be the most efficient management strategy. We expect our method will be useful for studying dynamics and evaluating management strategies of many species.