城市雨水管网降雨径流污染特征及对受纳水体水质的影响

以北京市城区和近郊区选取的2个不同下垫面类型的汇水小流域为代表,在2008—2009年共进行了4场降雨过程的雨水管网出口和下游受纳水体水质同步监测.研究结果表明,分流制雨水管网降雨径流污染严重,其中悬浮物浓度高于城市污水,COD、氨氮、总磷和总氮浓度略低于城市污水,但明显高于《地表水环境质量标准》（GB3838—2002）中的Ⅴ类标准,以及《城镇污水处理厂污染物排放标准》（GB18918—2002）中的一级B标准;木樨园小流域由于绿地面积比例小,道路面积比例大,城乡结合部地带环境卫生相对较差,雨水管网降雨径流各污染物的EMC浓度比西蒲小流域高21.4%—246.5%.雨水管网降雨径流存在一定程度的初期冲刷效应;雨水管网降雨径流中COD和总磷与悬浮物之间具有较强的相关性.管网降雨径流使受纳水体污染物浓度升高16.9%—541.7%,其中悬浮物、COD和氨氮升高幅度最大.增加城市绿地可明显降低降雨径流中的悬浮颗粒物及其携带的有机污染物的含量.     

Modelling the effects of land-use modifications to control nutrient loads from an agricultural catchment in Western Australia

The estuary of the Swan and Canning Rivers in Western Australia is becoming increasingly prone to algal blooms, fish deaths and other biochemical problems that are thought to be associated with increasing eutrophication. Phosphorus and nitrogen enrichment are seen as the two most common causes of such eutrophication, with both elements being transported in streamflow and with concentrations strongly dependent upon land-use in the catchment. Many of the efforts to prevent and control eutrophication in the estuary are focused on managing land-use within the catchment. In this paper, the large-scale catchment model (LASCAM) is applied to Ellen Brook, a rural catchment located within the Swan River catchment, to simulate catchment exports of phosphorus and nitrogen, under a range of land cover scenarios that are designed to control the eutrophication. The scenarios, which are related to different management options for the catchment, are: (i) reforestation of agricultural land; (ii) reduction in fertiliser application; and (iii) urbanisation following a highway development. The model results show that: (i) full reforestation of agricultural land is expected to reduce phosphorus and nitrogen export by 50 and 85%, respectively; (ii) a proportionally greater reduction of phosphorus and nitrogen export occurs for smaller areas of reforestation than for larger areas; (iii) reduction in phosphorus fertiliser application produces a linear response with respect to phosphorus export; (iv) urbanisation increases runoff due to the larger impermeable areas causing an increase of overland flow during storms; and (v) phosphorus and nitrogen loads are expected to increase about 4 and 12%, respectively, during the 10 years following urbanisation.     

Nitrogen export from an agriculture watershed in the Taihu Lake area, China

Temporal changes in nitrogen concentrations and stream discharge, as well as sediment and nitrogen losses from erosion plots with different land uses, were studied in an agricultural watershed in the Taihu Lake area in eastern China. The highest overland runoff loads and nitrogen losses were measured under the upland at a convergent footslope. Much higher runoff, sediment and nitrogen losses were observed under upland cropping and vegetable fields than that under chestnut orchard and bamboo forest. Sediment associated nitrogen losses accounted for 8-43.5% of total nitrogen export via overland runoff. N lost in dissolved inorganic nitrogen forms (NO(3-)-N + NH4+-N) accounted for less than 50% of total water associated nitrogen export. Agricultural practices and weather-driven fluctuation in discharge were main reasons for the temporal variations in nutrient losses via stream discharge. Significant correlation between the total nitrogen concentration and stream discharge load was observed. Simple regression models could give satisfactory results for prediction of the total nitrogen concentrations in stream water and can be used for better quantifying nitrogen losses from arable land. Nitrogen losses from the studied watershed via stream discharge during rice season in the year 2002 were estimated to be 10.5 kg N/ha using these simple models.     

Urbanization affects stream ecosystem function by altering hydrology, chemistry, and biotic richness.

Catchment urbanization can alter physical, chemical, and biological attributes of stream ecosystems. In particular, changes in land use may affect the dynamics of organic matter decomposition, a measure of ecosystem function. We examined leaf-litter decomposition in 18 tributaries of the St. Johns River, Florida, USA. Land use in all 18 catchments ranged from 0% to 93% urban which translated to 0% to 66% total impervious area (TIA). Using a litter-bag technique, we measured mass loss, fungal biomass, and macroinvertebrate biomass for two leaf species (red maple [Acer rubrum] and sweetgum [Liquidambar styraciflua]). Rates of litter mass loss, which ranged from 0.01 to 0.05 per day for red maple and 0.006 to 0.018 per day for sweetgum, increased with impervious catchment area to levels of approximately 30-40% TIA and then decreased as impervious catchment area exceeded 40% TIA. Fungal biomass was also highest in streams draining catchments with intermediate levels of TIA. Macroinvertebrate biomass ranged from 17 to 354 mg/bag for red maple and from 15 to 399 mg/bag for sweetgum. Snail biomass and snail and total invertebrate richness were strongly related to breakdown rates among streams regardless of leaf species. Land-use and physical, chemical, and biological variables were highly intercorrelated. Principal-components analysis was therefore used to reduce the variables into several orthogonal axes. Using stepwise regression, we found that flow regime, snail biomass, snail and total invertebrate richness, and metal and nutrient content (which varied in a nonlinear manner with impervious surface area) were likely factors affecting litter breakdown rates in these streams.     

Nitrogen Export from an Agriculture Watershed in the Taihu Lake Area, China

Temporal changes in nitrogen concentrations and stream discharge, as well as sediment and nitrogen losses from erosion plots with different land uses, were studied in an agricultural watershed in the Taihu Lake area in eastern China. The highest overland runoff loads and nitrogen losses were measured under the upland at a convergent footslope. Much higher runoff, sediment and nitrogen losses were observed under upland cropping and vegetable fields than that under chestnut orchard and bamboo forest. Sediment associated nitrogen losses accounted for 8–43.5% of total nitrogen export via overland runoff. N lost in dissolved inorganic nitrogen forms (NO ₃ ^– -N + NH ₄ ⁺ -N) accounted for less than 50% of total water associated nitrogen export. Agricultural practices and weather-driven fluctuation in discharge were main reasons for the temporal variations in nutrient losses via stream discharge. Significant correlation between the total nitrogen concentration and stream discharge load was observed. Simple regression models could give satisfactory results for prediction of the total nitrogen concentrations in stream water and can be used for better quantifying nitrogen losses from arable land. Nitrogen losses from the studied watershed via stream discharge during rice season in the year 2002 were estimated to be 10.5 kg N/ha using these simple models.     

北京市地面街尘与径流中重金属的污染特征（Characteristics of Heavy Metals in Street Dusts and Urban Runoff in Beijing）

街尘作为城市各种污染物的载体和地表径流污染物的主要来源对水环境的影响日益受到关注.论文分析了北京市城区街尘与地表径流中重金属浓度和颗粒的粒径分布.结果表明:不同城市土地利用类型对街尘和径流中的重金属含量、颗粒粒径分布具有重要影响.在商业区、主要道路、住宅区、城中村4种土地利用类型中,街尘重金属浓度和地面单位面积重金属质量均以主要道路最高;径流重金属浓度由高到低顺序依次为:主要道路>城中村>居民区;主要道路和商业区街尘颗粒中细粒径占的比例较高,在全部土地利用类型的径流水样中颗粒物粒径分布差别不大;随着街尘中颗粒物粒径的减小,重金属浓度增加;街尘中小于149μm的颗粒物质量百分比和重金属浓度均较高,且在径流中这个粒径段的颗粒物含量也高,体积比达80%以上.建议在今后的城市街尘面源污染控制中应特别关注土地利用类型和街尘粒径的影响.     

尾巨桉人工林小流域降水产流特征分析

研究尾巨桉(E.urophylla×E.grandis)生长阶段(林龄3.5—5.5 a)所处小流域的降水产流特征,有助于了解桉树生长过程的生态水文效应,对修订桉树人工林经营方案中注重提高生态系统的水源涵养能力有重要参考意义。以广西南宁桉树森林生态系统定位观测研究站(南宁桉树生态站)的闭合尾巨桉林小流域为试验区,在小流域出水口建设1个测流堰,在测流堰附属房的测定池安放1个自动水位计,定位观测小流域2013年5月—2015年4月的地表径流,使用生态站的自动气象观测系统观测降水量和土壤体积含水量,建立降水、土壤含水量和径流的函数关系,分析土壤前期含水量对径流形成和持续的影响。小流域年均降水量1300 mm,以小雨为主,两个年度小雨共计191场,占降水强度等级总场数74%;降水年内分布不均,雨季集中在季夏,占全年降水量的60%以上,冬季降水最少,属于干旱季节;降水产流现象在降水集中的月份才可能出现,2013年5月—2014年4月的径流深为81 mm,径流系数6%,2014年5月—2015年4月的径流深只有9 mm,径流系数仅为0.7%;径流初始时间明显滞后于降水初始,滞后时间与前期土壤含水量密切相关;径流递增率与降水历时呈线性函数关系,径流递减率与径流消退时间呈对数函数关系;降水产流过程经历径流递增期、稳定期和递减期3个阶段。     

Flow and mass balance analysis of eco-bio infiltration system

A structured stormwater infiltration system was developed and constructed at a university campus and monitoring of storm events was performed during a one-year operation period. The flow and pollutant mass balances were analyzed and the overall efficiency of the system was assessed. While significant positive correlations were observed among rainfall, runoff and discharge volume (R²= 0.93-0.99; p<0.05), there was no significant correlations existed between rainfall, runoff, discharge volume and pollutant load. The system was more effective in reducing the runoff volume by more than 50% for small storm events but the difference between the runoff and discharge volume was significant even with rainfall greater than 10 mm. Results showed that the pollutant reduction rates were higher compared to the runoff volume reduction. Average pollutant reduction rates were in the range of 72% to 90% with coefficient of variation between 0.10 and 0.46. Comparable with runoff reduction, the system was more effective in reducing the pollutant load for small storm events, in the range of 80% to 100% for rainfall between 0 and 10 mm; while 65% to 80% for rainfall between 10 and 20 mm. Among the pollutant parameters, particulate matters was highly reduced by the system achieving only a maximum of 25% discharge load even after the entire runoff was completely discharged. The findings have proven the capability of the system as a tool in stormwater management achieving both flow reduction and water quality improvement.     

The Impact of Agriculture On Dissolved Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Temperate Ecosystems

Although most research has focussed on inorganic nutrient forms of nitrate (NO^-₃) and phosphorus (PO³₄) in runoff and receiving waters, nitrogen loss from agricultural land can also occur in organic and ammonium-nitrogen form; phosphorus losses, although often dominated by particulate transport, may occur in soluble organic and inorganic form. Furthermore, fluxes between different species may take place during transport from the land to the stream and as a result of in-stream, in-river or in-lake transformations. Knowledge of the spatial and temporal variation in all nitrogen species and phosphorus fractions in a drainage basin is therefore essential if the wider environmental significance of elevated nutrient concentrations in natural waters are to be assessed. This paper reviews recent work on N and P losses from agricultural land and presents some results from two intensive agricultural catchments: Slapton, Devon and the river Windrush catchment in the Cotswolds.     

黄土小流域水沙输移过程对土地利用/覆被变化的响应

以甘肃定西安家沟小流域为典型研究区,基于TM、ALOS遥感影像解译和地面长期水文数据,深入分析了1997至2010年间流域土地利用变化特征及其产流产沙效应。结果显示,（1）14年间,流域林灌草面积分别增加160.23%、176.33%和80.75%;坡耕地、居民地、裸地和梯田面积分别减少25.57%、0.16%、48.45%和21.52%。以2005年为时间节点,发现前期灌草增加较多、裸地减少明显,后期则是乔木增加比例和坡耕地减少比例更为显著,彰显出不同历史阶段植被恢复的策略变化。（2）流域出口多年平均径流量和输沙量分别由前期的18 249 m3和6 383 kg锐减至后期的2 292 m3和2 267 kg,流域土地利用/覆被有效增加是其主要驱动。（3）春冬季节,由于降雨稀少、径流泥沙的本底值很低,前后两个阶段的水沙输移量差异较小,土地利用/覆被变化的影响相对尚不显著。但在夏秋季节,随着降雨事件增多,土地利用/覆被变化减水减沙的效应趋于显性化。     

Effects of Urbanization on Occupancy of Stream Salamanders

Abstract: Urban development is the most common form of land conversion in the United States. Using a before–after control‐impact study design, we investigated the effects of urbanization on larval and adult stages of southern two‐lined salamanders (Eurycea cirrigera) and northern dusky salamanders (Desmognathus fuscus). Over 5 years, we estimated changes in occupancy and probabilities of colonization and survival in 13 stream catchments after urbanization and in 17 catchments that were not urbanized. We also examined effects of proportion of urbanized area in a catchment and distance of the salamander population to the nearest stream on probabilities of colonization and survival. Before urbanization, adult and larval stages of the two salamander species occupied nearly all surveyed streams, with occupancy estimates ranging from 1.0 to 0.78. Four years after urbanization mean occupancy of larval and adult two‐lined salamanders had decreased from 0.87 and 0.78 to 0.57 and 0.39, respectively. Estimates of mean occupancy of larval northern dusky salamanders decreased from 1.0 to 0.57 in urban streams 4 years after urbanization; however, adult northern dusky salamander occupancy remained close to 1.0 in urban streams over 5 years. Occupancy estimates in control streams were similar for each species and stage over 5 years. Urbanization was associated with decreases in survival probabilities of adult and larval two‐lined salamanders and decreases in colonization probabilities of larval dusky salamanders. Nevertheless, proportion of impervious surface and distance to nearest stream had little effect on probabilities of survival and colonization. Our results imply that in the evaluation of the effects of urbanization on species, such as amphibians, with complex life cycles, consideration of the effects of urbanization on both adult and larval stages is required.     

西安市不同下垫面路面径流雨水中重金属的四季污染特征

重金属是雨水径流中的重要污染物质。为探究雨水径流中重金属的季节变化规律。地理位置因素和人为因素对重金属含量的影响。根据西安市城区内道路类型、路面材质、交通量、人流量等因素选择5个采样点,以2013年全年的降雨样品作为研究对象,利用电感耦合等离子质谱仪（ICP-MS）测定雨水径流中重金属Cd、Zn、Fe、Mn、Al、Pb的质量浓度。研究结果表明：Cd的质量浓度正常,低于地表水环境质量Ⅰ类标准,受地理位置、人为活动以及季节变化的影响极小。Zn的质量浓度正常,在地表水环境质量标准第Ⅰ类和第Ⅱ类标准之间;与地理位置、人为活动以及季节变化没有明显关系。Fe的含量因地理位置不同而异,交通繁忙、商业活动较多的小寨四季雨水径流中的Fe均较高,均为城市供水水质标准的3倍,商业活动的影响大于车辆交通的影响,校园秋季雨水中Fe为水质标准的2倍,其它3个季节水质正常,浓度的影响较小,人为因素对雨水中Fe含量的有一定的影响,人流量大的区域雨水中Fe的含量相对较高。冬季燃煤对雨水中Mn的含量影响较为明显。Mn 只在冬季雨水中的含量略高于城市供水水质标准,对环境影响很小;地理位置,人为活动,区域职能对 Mn的含量均没有明显的影响。Al 的含量在城市供水水质标准限值内,受人流量、区域职能、季节变化影响较小,受地理位置影响较大。Pb的含量受路面交通环境和冬季煤炭燃烧的影响较大,在车辆交通繁忙的地点,Pb的含量明显增高;Pb的含量受季节变化影响较为明显,冬季＞春季＞夏季＞秋季;人流量对 Pb 的含量影响不大;下垫面对 Pb 的含量影响明显,柏油路面上的雨水径流中Pb含量最高,石板路面上Pb的含量在其次,塑胶路面上Pb的含量最少。     

Analysis of rainfall runoff characteristics from a subtropical urban lawn catchment in South-east China

Characteristics of rainfall runoff from a 3.26 hm² urban catchment with predominant land-use as lawn in Xiamen City, South-east China were investigated and analyzed. Water quality and quantity measurements of rainfall runoff were conducted for ten rainfall events over the period March, 2008 to April, 2009. The results indicated that chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total phosphorus (TP) were the major pollutants with event mean concentrations of 56.09 and 0.44 mg·L^?1. From hydrograph and pollutograph analysis of two typical rainfall events, it was clear that the peak rainfall preceded the peak flowrate by about 15?C20 min. Meanwhile, concentrations of major pollutants showed multiple peaks and these peaks usually preceded peak flowrate. There were no distinctive first-flush effects except for the rainfall events with the longest rainfall duration and largest runoff volume, which was verified by the fact that the first 30% runoff volume (FF30) carried 39.36% of the total suspended solids (TSS) load, 35.17% of the COD load, 28.13% of the TP load and 39.03% of the nitrate nitrogen load. Multivariate regression analysis further demonstrated that the total runoff volume had a positive correlation with the FF30 of TSS and COD.     

秸秆还田对农田周年地表径流氮、磷、钾流失的影响

2009—2010年在大田试验条件下,小麦季和水稻季分别以扬麦16和运2645为供试材料,两季均设置常规处理（A）、秸秆还田（B）、秸秆还田减肥（C）、肥料运筹（D）和少免耕（E）5个处理组合。研究不同处理对稻麦两熟制农田周年地表径流氮、磷、钾流失的影响。结果表明：（1）稻麦两季农田共发生地表径流20次,总地表径流水量为6.4×106kg·hm-2;（2）秸秆还田能够显著降低稻麦两熟制农田周年地表径流氮、磷、钾流失量,不同处理周年地表径流总氮和钾的流失量由高到低均依次为少免耕、常规处理、肥料运筹、秸秆还田和秸秆还田减肥,不同处理周年地表径流总磷流失量由高到低依次为少免耕、肥料运筹、常规处理、秸秆还田和秸秆还田减肥,秸秆还田使稻麦两熟制农田地表径流氮、磷、钾流失量分别比常规处理下降7.7%、8.0%、6.8%;（3）水稻季农田地表径流总氮、总磷、钾流失量分别占稻麦两熟制周年总氮、总磷、钾流失量的61.5%、44.0%、73.3%;（4）秸秆还田使稻麦两熟制农田周年地表径流氮、磷、钾流失率显著降低;（5）秸秆还田使水稻成熟期土壤速效养分质量分数显著提高;（6）秸秆还田使稻麦两熟制农田周年作物产量比常规处理略有增加。     

Inconsistent definitions of "urban" result in different conclusions about the size of urban carbon and nitrogen stocks

There is conflicting evidence about the importance of urban soils and vegetation in regional C budgets that is caused, in part, by inconsistent definitions of "urban" land use. We quantified urban ecosystem contributions to C stocks in the Boston (Massachusetts, USA) Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) using several alternative urban definitions. Development altered aboveground and belowground C and N stocks, and the sign and magnitude of these changes varied by land use and development intensity. Aboveground biomass (live trees, dbh > or = 5 cm) for the MSA was 7.2 +/- 0.4 kg C/m2 (mean +/- SE), reflecting a high proportion of forest cover. Vegetation C was highest in forest (11.6 +/- 0.5 kg C/m2), followed by residential (4.6 +/- 0.5 kg C/m2), and then other developed (2.0 +/- 0.4 kg C/m2) land uses. Soil C (0-10 cm depth) followed the same pattern of decreasing C concentration from forest, to residential, to other developed land uses (4.1 +/- 0.1, 4.0 +/- 0.2, and 3.3 +/- 0.2 kg C/m2, respectively). Within a land use type, urban areas (which we defined as > 25% impervious surface area [ISA] within a 1-km(2) moving window) generally contained less vegetation C, but slightly more soil C, than nonurban areas. Soil N concentrations were higher in urban areas than nonurban areas of the same land use type, except for residential areas, which had similarly high soil N concentrations. When we compared our definition of urban to other commonly used urban extents (U.S. Census Bureau, Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project [GRUMP], and the MSA itself), we found that urban soil (1 m depth) and vegetation C stocks spanned a wide range, from 14.4 +/- 0.8 to 54.5 +/- 3.4 Tg C and from 4.2 +/- 0.4 to 27.3 +/- 3.2 Tg C, respectively. Conclusions about the importance of urban soils and vegetation to regional C and N stocks are very sensitive to the definition of urban used by the investigators. Urban areas, regardless of definition, are rapidly expanding in their extent; a systematic understanding of how our development patterns influence ecosystems is necessary to inform future development choices.     

Comparison of a simple and a spatially distributed hydrologic model for the simulation of a lowland catchment in Northern Germany

This paper describes the application of two simple models for runoff simulation of the Kielstau, a small wetland catchment in Northern Germany. The first one is SIMPEL, a one-dimensional spreadsheet model for soil water balance and runoff for small catchments; the second one is KIDS, Kielstau discharge simulation model, which is written in the PCRaster dynamic modelling language. KIDS uses the algorithms of SIMPEL, but applies them to a spatial database.The basic version of both models fails to reproduce the measured hydrograph for a flat region in Northern Germany with ca. 30% wetlands. Additionally, the water balance of the region cannot be closed, the relative discharge is lower than in the neighbouring catchments which means that ET must be higher. After the creation of an additional wetland compartment module where ETa equals ETp, the hydrographs could be matched. In a second step, we used inverse modelling with the SIMPEL model to evaluate the range of input parameters and possible sources of the low outflow of the catchment. We found that the low discharge can only be modelled if the evaporation is increased substantially. A wetland fraction of 0.3 produced the best results in inverse modelling runs, this value was also estimated based on the available maps.     

Nitrate Status of Two Major Rivers in N. E. Scotland with Respect to Land Use and Fertiliser Additions

Land Use and the influence it has upon river water nitrate levels is discussed, for two large relatively unpopulated river systems in the N.E. of Scotland. the catchment areas for the rivers Dee and Don have been further subdivided into a number of sub catchments. Substantial differences in land use and agricultural potential exist both within and between the two areas. Greater agricultural production down stream is associated with increased river nitrate concentrations.     

Nitrate Status of Two Major Rivers in N. E. Scotland with Respect to Land Use and Fertiliser Additions

Land Use and the influence it has upon river water nitrate levels is discussed, for two large relatively unpopulated river systems in the N.E. of Scotland. the catchment areas for the rivers Dee and Don have been further subdivided into a number of sub catchments. Substantial differences in land use and agricultural potential exist both within and between the two areas. Greater agricultural production down stream is associated with increased river nitrate concentrations.     

Analysing the effects of soil properties changes associated with land use changes on the simulated water balance: A comparison of three hydrological catchment models for scenario analysis

This paper presents results of a model comparison study within the LUCHEM framework (‘assessing the impact of Land Use Change on Hydrology by Ensemble Modelling’) where the effects of land use change on catchment water balances were assessed with various hydrological catchment models. The motivation for this part of LUCHEM is that it is well known that land use changes may induce changes in soil chemical and soil physical properties (e.g. bulk density). Unfortunately the effects of land use change on soil hydraulic properties are seldom investigated directly, but some information on changes in bulk density is available. Changes in bulk density can be used as input for pedotransfer functions to derive changes in soil hydraulic model parameters. In this study, three different catchment models (SWAT, TOPLATS, WASIM) are compared with respect to their sensitivity to land use change with and without consideration of associated changes in soil parameterisation. The results reveal that different models show a different sensitivity to the change in soil parameterisation while the magnitude of absolute changes in simulated evapotranspiration and discharge is similar. SWAT calculates largest changes in the water balance in a German mesoscale catchment. TOPLATS also shows significant changes in the calculated catchment water balances as well as in the runoff generation while WASIM reacts least sensitive. While TOPLATS and WASIM show similar patterns with respect to changes in the water flows for all subcatchments and land use scenarios, SWAT results are similar for the different catchments, but show scenario specific patterns. In relation to the magnitude of the effects on simulated water flows induced by land use change, the significance of considering soil change effects depends on both, the scenario definition and on the model sensitivity to soil parameterisation. For two of the three land use scenarios representing an intensified land use, SWAT and TOPLATS simulate water balance changes in the same order of magnitude due to both, land use and soil property changes. Therefore, a consideration of changes in soil properties as part of land use change scenario analysis is recommended. Future field work needs to aim at the validation of the assumed dependency of soil hydrologic properties on land use change.     

Relationships between runoff and land degradation on non-cultivated land in the Middle Hills of Nepal

SUMMARY

Rainfall-surface water runoff relationships have been examined for 912 rainfall events during the 1992 and 1993 monsoon seasons on 15 erosion plots on a variety of non-cultivated land uses in the Middle Hills, Nepal. Vegetation cover and type examined ranged from grassland and relatively undisturbed mixed broadleaf forest to subtropical Sal forest, in various states of degradation, and bare ground. Runoff was frequently generated on most plots and often by relatively small rainfall amounts (less than 5 mm) and low rainfall intensities (3 mm/h). Ground cover and canopy cover were significant factors in determining amounts of runoff. Runoff coefficients ranged from 1–2% under grassland and mixed broadleaf forest to 57–64% on the bare sites. Coefficients for Sal forest were between these two extremes; specific values depended on the level of degradation induced by human activity. The most degraded forest sites experienced runoff coefficients of 33%. Ground cover beneath the trees, especially leaf litter, was more effective in reducing runoff than the amount of canopy cover. Canopy cover was more effective during the less intense storms but was ineffective when the rainfall intensity was high. The results suggest that a minimum ground cover of 60% will keep runoff to within 10% of total rainfall amounts for most normal monsoons in the Middle Hills. This will also reduce the risk of gullying and surface soil erosion. It is the nature of the forest that is important and not its total area. In the study area, although the total area under forest had not changed, some of the forest had become more degraded with a corresponding increase in mean runoff rates. Increased runoff can occur even if the area under forest increases. Estimates of levels of degradation based solely on changing forest areas are likely to be inaccurate.