惠州西湖生态修复对浮游植物的影响

2007年广东惠州西湖子湖-南湖采用水生植被构建和修复等措施改变湖泊水质。通过2010年2月至11月对南湖和未修复的平湖的浮游植物群落的调查比较,研究湖泊生态系统修复对浮游植物群落结构的影响。结果表明：（1）南湖的浮游植物多样性指数高于平湖,两者峰值分别为1.93（nit）,0.88（nit）,分别在8月和2月,两湖均呈现2、8月高峰,5、11月低谷的变化特征。（2）南湖的浮游植物群落呈隐藻-绿藻（四尾栅藻Scenedesmus quadricuda）-甲藻（多甲藻Peridinium sp.）变化模式,平湖则全年以蓝藻门占绝对优势,优势种为银灰平列藻（Merismipedia sp.）和湖丝藻（Limnolothix sp.）。（3）南湖浮游植物的生物量和细胞丰度的平均值均远低于平湖。由此可知,重建水生植被为主的生态修复手段是抑制浮游植物发展和改善湖泊水环境的有效途径。     

气候变化对西南亚高山区流域碳水平衡的影响模拟

为了揭示气候变化对西南亚高山区流域碳水平衡的影响,应用生物物理/动态植被模式SSi B4/TRIFFID与流域水文模型TOPMODEL的耦合模式SSi B4T/TRIFFID进行西南亚高山区的梭磨河流域不同气候情景下[背景条件(控制试验)、增温2℃(T+2)、增温5℃+增雨40%(T+5,(1+40%) P)]植被与碳水平衡的动态模拟。控制试验结果显示,流域蒸散在流域为苔原灌木覆盖时达到最大而径流深最小;T+5,(1+40%) P试验流域蒸散在流域为森林覆盖时达到最大而径流深最小。随着温度增加,由于森林、苔原灌木和C3草地3种植被类型中森林蒸散增加幅度最大,导致森林从控制试验的增加径流量变为减小径流量。从控制试验到T+5,(1+40%) P试验,森林蒸散从388.1 mm·a-1增加到802.9 mm·a-1,径流深从298.0 mm·a-1减小到157.9 mm·a-1,径流系数从0.43减小到0.16;森林净初级生产力NPP从1 025.5 g·m-2·a-1增加到1 199.5 g·m-2·a-1,净生态系统生产力NEP从476.8g·m-2·a-1增加到650.8g·m-2·a-1。NPP和NEP增加幅度低于蒸散增加的幅度,表征碳水耦合关系的水分利用效率WUE随温度增加而明显减小。WUE和森林-径流关系随海拔高度变化,西南山区气候的垂直地带性分布控制了水分利用效率和森林-径流关系的空间变化。     

椒江口春、秋季浮游动物分布特征及与主要环境因子的关系

2009年5月和10月对椒江口(121.35°E～121.85°E,28.50°N～28.80°N)浮游动物进行调查,分析其群落结构、生物量和丰度的时空分布特征及与主要环境因子的关系.结果表明,该海域浮游动物有明显的季节变化,春季鉴定到14大类50种,卡玛拉水母(Malagazzia carolinae)为绝对优势种,秋季鉴定到14大类73种,优势种分别为百陶箭虫(Sagitta bedoti)、双生水母(Diphyes chamissonis)、亚强真哲水蚤(Eucalanus subcrassus)、微刺哲水蚤(Canthocalanus pauper)、中华胸刺水蚤(Centropages sinensis)和肥胖箭虫(Sagitta enflata);多样性指数为秋季(2.59)高于春季(1.82),生物量和丰度为春季(972.66 mg/m3和1 743.54 ind/m3)远高于秋季(65.30 mg/m3和31.94 ind/m3).总生物量和丰度的空间分布由优势种决定,春季高值区出现在咸淡水交汇的出海口处;秋季有沿河口向外递增的趋势.典范对应分析(CCA)表明,营养盐、盐度和溶解氧为影响春秋季椒江口浮游动物分布的环境因子;浮游动物群落存在明显的季节和空间异质性;各物种适宜的生态环境不同.与类似河口的现状相比,椒江口的浮游动物种类丰富,可能与影响该河口的水团多样有关;与历史资料相比,椒江口4、10月份浮游动物的生物量、丰度及优势类群保持相对稳定.图9表6参44     

北固山湿地植物对氮磷元素吸收能力的研究

湿地作为一种高效低耗的污水处理技术,其在脱氮除磷方面的应用倍受人们的关注。为研究北固山湿地植物对氮磷元素的吸收能力,以该湿地优势植物芦苇(Phragmites australis)和虉草(Phalaris arundinaceaLinn)为研究对象,测定3月至11月期间,其地上生物量以及各组织中总氮、总磷的含量,分析其氮磷积累的动态变化规律。结果表明,(1)芦苇、虉草的地上生物量均呈先增加后减少的趋势,且茎的生物量远大于叶和穗。(2)芦苇、虉草叶中的氮、磷含量均高于同期芦苇茎中的含量。芦苇对氮、磷的积累在8月份达到最大值,分别为38.97g·m-2、18.22g·m-2。而虉草对氮、磷的积累在5月份达到最大值,分别为23.19g·m-2、6.32g·m-2。(3)芦苇、虉草对氮、磷的吸收均呈单峰值曲线,对氮的吸收都远大于磷,且芦苇对氮、磷的吸收能力较好。(4)适时收割芦苇、虉草,可从北固山湿地中移除1248.90kg总氮和381.8kg总磷,同时还可以将其作为纸浆来源,创造一定的经济价值。     

井冈山中亚热带森林植被碳储量及固碳潜力估算

国内外关于森林碳汇功能的研究集中于热带和温带森林,就中国东部亚热带森林,尤其是中亚热带常绿阔叶林的碳汇功能的研究较为薄弱。该研究选取井冈山国家级自然保护区作为中国中亚热带森林生态系统的典型代表,针对不同森林类型分别设置样地,采用材积源生物量法估算该地区森林生态系统植被碳储量,并以老龄林生态系统碳储量为参考标准,通过计算参考碳储量与基准碳储量之差,估算研究区森林植被的固碳潜力,旨在明确中国中亚热带森林生态系统在全球碳循环中的作用及贡献。研究发现,(1)井冈山自然保护区森林植被总碳储量为1 589 531 t,平均碳密度为7.29 kg·m-2,高于中国及全球中高纬度森林植被平均碳密度。常绿阔叶林植被碳密度最高,为9.25 kg·m-2,其次是针阔叶混交林和常绿落叶阔叶混交林,其植被碳密度分别为8.12和7.83 kg·m-2。(2)各林型老龄林的植被碳密度均高于平均植被碳密度,常绿阔叶林的老龄林植被碳密度最大,达10.53 kg·m-2。(3)研究区森林植被的固碳潜力为182 868 t,常绿阔叶林的植被固碳潜力最大,达74 086 t,其次为常绿落叶阔叶林混交林、暖性针叶林和针阔叶混交林。研究结果表明中国中亚热带森林生态系统具有较高的固碳能力。     

茂名近岸海域中、小型浮游动物群落特征及其与环境因子的关系

近年来,随着茂名经济迅猛发展及涉海工程建设,其近海海域遭到日益严重的污染,海域环境日趋恶化。为更好地了解茂名近岸海域中小型浮游动物群落结构及其与环境因子的关系,摸清中小型浮游动物的种类组成及其空间分布状况,保护近岸海域生物多样性,分别于2019年夏季(6月)和秋季(9月)对茂名近海浮游动物进行调查。调查共发现浮游动物52种,以桡足类为主(达到40种,占比76.92%)。秋季浮游动物平均丰度和平均生物量(分别为29.82 ind·m^-3和282.08 mg·m^-3)均高于夏季(分别为15.71×10³ ind·m^-3和110.23 mg·m^-3)。短角长腹剑水蚤(Oithona brevicornis)、小长腹剑水蚤(Oithona nana)、强额拟哲水蚤(Paracalanus crassirostris)和小拟哲水蚤(Paracalanus parvus)为茂名近岸海域春、夏季优势种。夏季和秋季浮游植物物种多样性指数平均值分别为3.06和2.69,丰富度指数平均值分别为3.65和3.38,均匀度指数平均值分别为0.71和0.66。运用BIO-ENV方法分析了浮游动物群落结构以及与浮游植物丰度、环境因子之间的关系,结果表明浮游植物丰度、溶解氧、盐度、水温、水深是影响夏季浮游动物群落的主要环境因子,水深、浮游植物丰度是影响秋季浮游动物群落的主要环境因子。     

深圳湾浮游动物的群落结构及季节变化

2008年2月、5月、8月和11月分别对深圳湾浮游动物进行了周年的季节调查,结果共检出浮游动物38种和浮游幼体13类,其中原生动物2种,腔肠动物4种,介形类1种,桡足类22种,软甲类3种,毛颚类3种,被囊类1种,多毛类2种,浮游幼体（包括仔鱼）13类。年均丰度和生物量分别为406.7 ind.m-3和764.0 mg.m-3,高峰均位于夏季,低谷分别位于冬、春季。种类数（包括浮游幼虫）秋季最多为43种,夏季次之为30种,冬季最少仅23种。主要优势种为太平洋纺锤水蚤Acartia pacifica、刺尾纺锤水蚤Acartia spinicauda、短角长腹剑水蚤Oithona brevicornis、双生水母Diphyes chamissonis、卡玛拉水母Malagazzia carolinae、蔓足类幼体和桡足幼体等。多样性指数和均匀度年均值分别为2.568和0.526。回归分析表明浮游动物丰度和生物量与各环境因子之间存在明显的相关性,但有季节变化。     

滇池不同水域凤眼莲生长特性及氮磷富集能力

在滇池草海和外海水域共选择6个试验点,采用围栏设施有控制地种养凤眼莲(Eichhornia crassipes),初始放养量为3 kg·m-2,每2周监测1次各试验点水质状况、凤眼莲生长特性指标和植株氮磷含量,对比研究滇池不同水域凤眼莲生长特性及氮磷富集能力差异.结果显示,外草海水域水体氮磷浓度较高,凤眼莲生物量增长速率最高,平均为542 g·m12·d-1,全年累积生物量最大,可达85.37 kg·m-2,植株TN、TP含量(以干质量计,下同)最高,分别为32.9和8.2 g· kg-1.外海白山湾水域水体氮磷浓度相对较低,凤眼莲生物量增长速率较低,平均为150 g·m-2·d-1,全年累积生物量较低,为27.00 kg·m-2,植株TN、TP含量较低,分别为15.0和6.4g· kg-1.水体pH值、氮磷含量和风浪是影响风眼莲生长的主要因素.     

黄河三角洲滩涂区大型底栖动物群落数量特征

在对黄河三角洲河口滩涂区主要市地类型大型底栖动物调查的基础上,采用定性与定量相结合的方法,利用物种丰度、生物量、丰富度指数、物种多样性指数、均匀度及生态优势度指数等指标对3种梯度带8类典型样地下的大型底柄动物进行群落特征调查分析.结果表明,①黄河口滩涂区共有大型底柄动物30种,隶属于节肢动物门、软体动物门及环节动物门,共7纲24科25属;大型底柄动物种类南多到少为节肢动物>环节动物>软体动物,平均生物量为19.48 g·m-2,平均丰度为679.04 ind·m-2,生物量由多到少为节肢动物>软体动物>环节动物.②随着南水生生境过渡到旱生生境,河口滩涂区大型底栖动物物种丰富度和多样性均有减少趋势,生态优势度有增加的趋势,其生物种类、生物量和丰度表现为芦苇湿地>海防林带>盐碱滩.③随着季节的变化,不同样地类型的物种丰度和生物量变化幅度很大,夏季比春季高;但生态优势度指数随季节变化不明显,由春季到夏季底柄动物在物种均匀度上表现为减弱趋势,而物种多样性总体上表现为增加趋势.     

酸性河流中浮游动物群落分析

为研究浮游动物对广东大宝山矿区外排酸性废水的响应,以评估周边及下游水域的水生态环境现状,于2010年9月采样调查了广东大宝山矿区周边河流的浮游动物状况,对比分析了受矿山酸性废水影响严重的水域与影响较小的水域浮游动物的种类组成、丰度、生物多样性指数及均匀度等指标差异,并探讨了浮游动物群落与环境因子之间的关系.结果表明,检出的46种浮游动物中轮虫类种类最多,有24种,枝角类和桡足类分别为10种和9种,原生动物仅有3种.其中受污染较为严重的受损组(S1~S3)几乎未发现浮游动物,臂尾轮虫和异尾轮虫在相对受污染影响较小的恢复组(S4~S7)占有较大优势.调查得到的浮游动物最大丰度及生物量分别为378.26 ind./L和1.990 1 mg/L.相关分析表明,pH、总氮、氨氮、高锰酸盐指数(CODMn)、硅酸盐及重金属铅和铬等环境因子对浮游动物群落分布影响显著.     

Measurement of Odor-Plume Structure in a Wind Tunnel Using a Photoionization Detector and a Tracer Gas

The patterns of stimulus available to moths flying along pheromone plumes in a 3-m-long wind tunnel were characterized using a high frequency photoionization detector in conjunction with an inert tracer gas. Four contrasting flow regimes and source conditions were produced: odor released in pulses from a vertical and horizontal array of four sources, odor released continuously from a point source, and odor released continuously from a point source into an oscillatory wake. Although the four flow regimes produced plumes of intermittent and fluctuating concentration, there were considerable differences in the structure of the signal presented to the sensor. Pulses of tracer gas released at 10 Hz retained most of their longitudinal and lateral separation. The plume growing in the disturbed flow (`oscillatory'), was broader in its lateral extent than the plume growing in an undisturbed flow (`continuous'), and the concentrations in the former were lower at each downstream position. The signal recorded in the disturbed flow had higher intermittency, but the ratio between the peak concentration and the signal mean was lower than in the continuous plume. Time scales were typically longer in the tunnel than in a field setting, but length scales and the main features of intermittency and fluctuation were similar. Moths flying along plumes of pheromone in this and similar wind tunnels typically slow their velocity and narrow the lateral excursions of their flight track as they approach a pheromone source. Which features of the plumes measured in this study account for these behavioral reactions remains to be determined.     

Mate choice tactics and swarm size: a model and a test in a dance fly

In the dance flyEmpis borealis (L.) (Diptera: Empididae) females gather to swarm and males visit swarms for mating. A model was constructed, based on previously published data, simulating how males may choose among females of different sizes in swarms of different sizes. The focal question was, what influences the number of individuals in the swarm in this and possibly other swarming insects? The relationships between original swarm size and both the number of males arriving per minute and the proportion of males mating are both logarithmic. The model predicted that if these relationships were linear, or if males were able to judge absolute female size, the mean swarm size should increase and be at least four times as large as those found in the field. The only type of male mate choice strategy that gave rise to very large swarms (>25) was size-related choice (if males are able to assess the size of a female in relation to the entire population and not merely to the swarm). Furthermore, no swarming behaviour would occur if males mate independently of swarm size. Thus, the numbers of females attending a given swarm site are influenced by male arrival pattern, male preference for larger swarms, the inability of males to judge the absolute body size of females, and female polyandry. Males searching for mates seem to prefer larger swarms than females searching for a swarm to join, but the mean swarm size is primarily set by the swarm size preference of females. Optimal swarm size predicted from the model was 4.68±0.53 females. In order to test model predictions, 69 natural swarm sites were studied during one season. The mean swarm size was 4.85±4.54 females (median 4.03), and about 90% of swarms consisted of 11 females or fewer. Predicted and observed swarm size did not differ significantly.     

Growth and Cd accumulation of two halophytes and a non-halophyte grown in a non-saline and a saline soil with different Cd levels

Two halophytes, Salicornia europaea and Atriplex verucifera, and the non-halophyte Chenopodium album were grown in pots on sodic and non-sodic Iranian soils spiked with up to 100 mg Cd kg^?1. The halophytes grew best on the sodic soil in the absence of Cd spiking, while C. album performed better on non-sodic soil. Cadmium spiking reduced the growth of all plants, with Cd tolerance decreasing in the order S. europaea>A. verucifera>C. album. The observed order of Cd tolerance corresponds to the abilities of the plants to tolerate sodic soil properties. The variation of Cd concentration in shoots in response to sodicity was related to different mechanism, including dilution (C. album) Cd solubilisation by Ca²⁺ (S. europea) and Ca²⁺ competition for uptake and translocation of Cd (A. verucifera). Improved understanding of these complex interactions will help to design phytoextraction technology for Cd-polluted soils in arid regions.     

Length of feeding day and body weight of great tits in a single- and a two-predator environment

The risk of predation may influence the acquisition of energy and the feeding activity of animals. Feeding activity and body reserves of wintering great tits Parus major in response to the priority to food access were studied in two areas differing in incidence of predators. The one-predator area contained sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus only, whereas the two-predator area contained both sparrowhawks and pygmy owls Glaucidium passerinum, whose hunting periods overlap at dawn and dusk. In the two-predator area dominant great tits arrived at feeders significantly later in the morning, and left earlier in the evening, than their subordinate flock-mates. Hence, feeding day length of dominants was found to be significantly shorter. The reverse was true for the one-predator area. In addition, dominants carried significantly greater reserves than subordinates in the area inhabited by two predators. Factors constraining subcutaneous energy reserves were also studied in removal experiments. After the removal of dominant individuals, subordinate great tits did not reduce their body reserves in the two predator area. In contrast, subordinate great tits significantly reduced evening body reserves in the single-predator area. I concluded that the presence of the two predators increases unpredictability in feeding conditions for great tits. Dominant individuals responded to this by shortening their feeding day and increasing body reserves at dusk. Received: 8 December 1999 / Received in revised form: 15 March 2000 / Accepted: 31 March 2000     

Asymmetry in a visual signaling character and sexual selection in a wolf spider

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) can indicate developmental instability in bilaterally symmetric organisms, and studies have shown that the degree of asymmetry in male secondary sexual characters influences female mate choice in a number of taxa. In male Schizocosa ocreata wolf spiders, conspicuous tufts of bristles on the forelegs are a critical component of visual courtship signals, which appear to play a role in female mate choice. Previous studies have shown that females exhibit reduced receptivity to males with regenerative asymmetry, a consequence of leg loss and regeneration that causes males to be grossly asymmetric with respect to this important signaling character. We provide data on the occurrence of FA in the tufts of S. ocreata, and examine further the influence of asymmetry on female mate choice. The distribution of tuft area asymmetry values from a sample of field-collected males was normal, with a mean value of zero, indicating true FA. For a subset of males measured directly after field collection and prior to feeding, tuft asymmetry was significantly negatively correlated with measures of body size (body length) and condition (abdomen volume/cephalothorax width). Receptivity responses of females to visual signals from live males of similar size varied with the degree of asymmetry in male tufts. Since FA covaries with male body size and condition, which may also influence behavioral vigor, we used video image manipulation to alter the degree of asymmetry in tufts of a courting male while holding size and condition constant. Asymmetry treatments represented values within the range of natural FA variation as well as more extreme values characteristic of regenerative asymmetry. With the confounding effects of male size, condition, and behavior held constant, female spiders exhibited reduced receptivity responses to all experimental asymmetric video images relative to a control video stimulus. There were no differences in the frequency of female receptivity among the various asymmetry treatments, suggesting that discrimination against asymmetry in conspecific male signal characters is not simply a rejection of extreme phenotypes. Results suggest that asymmetry in a key male secondary character used in visual signaling, independent of any concomitant behavioral or size factor, is an important criterion in mate choice. Received: 26 February 1998 / Accepted after revision: 12 September 1998     

Simultaneous nitrogen and silicate deficiency of a phytoplankton community in a coastal jet-front

The nutritional status of a phytoplankton community was investigated in a coastal jet-front located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, in 1987. During the sampling period, the frontal community was mainly composed of the diatomsChaetoceros debilis, Skeletonema costatum, Thalassiosira gravida andC. pelagicus. As previously reported for the St. Lawrence, some frontal stations were depleted both in nitrate and silicate. At stations impoverished in nitrate, internal nitrate pool concentrations were low or undetectable, suggesting that cells had not, recently, been exposed to a nitrate flux which exceeded the nitrate assimilation rate. At these impoverished stations, however, ambient and intracellular concentrations of ammonium and urea were high, suggesting that the community was not nitrogen-deficient. The comparison between the ambient silicate concentrations and the silicate requirement (K _s ) of the dominant diatoms suggests thatC. debilis andS. costatum were Si-deficient. This is further supported by the low silicate uptake rates and intracellular concentrations measured at the silicate impoverished stations. The silicate deficiency also resulted in a decrease in the seston and phytoplankton N:C ratios.Please address all correspondence and requests for reprints to Dr Levasseur at his new address: Maurice Lamontagne Institute, 850 Route de la Mer, Mont-Joli, Québec G5H 3Z4, Canada     

Linking species- and ecosystem-level impacts of climate change in lakes with a complex and a minimal model

To study the interaction between species- and ecosystem-level impacts of climate change, we focus on the question of how climate-induced shifts in key species affect the positive feedback loops that lock shallow lakes either in a transparent, macrophyte-dominated state or, alternatively, in a turbid, phytoplankton-dominated state. We hypothesize that climate warming will weaken the resilience of the macrophyte-dominated clear state. For the turbid state, we hypothesize that climate warming and climate-induced eutrophication will increase the dominance of cyanobacteria. Climate change will also affect shallow lakes through a changing hydrology and through climate change-induced eutrophication. We study these phenomena using two models, the full ecosystem model PCLake and a minimal dynamic model of lake phosphorus dynamics. Quantitative predictions with the complex model show that changes in nutrient loading, hydraulic loading and climate warming can all lead to shifts in ecosystem state. The minimal model helped in interpreting the non-linear behaviour of the complex model. The main output parameters of interest for water quality managers are the critical nutrient loading at which the system will switch from clear to turbid and the much lower critical nutrient loading – due to hysteresis – at which the system switches back. Another important output parameter is the chlorophyll-a level in the turbid state. For each of these three output parameters we performed a sensitivity analysis to further understand the dynamics of the complex model PCLake. This analysis showed that our model results are most sensitive to changes in temperature-dependence of cyanobacteria, planktivorous fish and zooplankton. We argue that by combining models at various levels of complexity and looking at multiple aspects of climate changes simultaneously we can develop an integrated view of the potential impact of climate change on freshwater ecosystems.     

南方某水库水体中抗生素生态与健康风险研究

环境中大量残留的抗生素将对生态环境和人体健康造成潜在危害。本研究采用风险商值法(RQ)评价了林肯霉素、红霉素(脱水)、罗红霉素、磺胺甲噁唑、磺胺二甲嘧啶、头孢呋辛、头孢氨苄、甲硝唑、阿莫西林和氯霉素10种抗生素对南方某水库水体产生的生态风险,并对10种抗生素进行了化学非致癌物风险评价。结果表明,7个采样点中共检出8种抗生素,残留量在1.2~130.0 ng·L~(-1)之间。红霉素(脱水)、林肯霉素、磺胺甲噁唑这3种抗生素在丰水期、枯水期的所有采样点均有检出,磺胺二甲嘧啶和头孢呋辛在枯水期的检出率也为100%,而氯霉素和阿莫西林在7个样点均未检出。风险评价结果表明,除个别样点外,该水库抗生素残留的整体风险不高。丰水期和枯水期A河水体中磺胺甲噁唑的生态风险商大于1,A河(丰水期和枯水期)、B河(丰水期)和库中3号样点(枯水期)的联合毒性风险商大于1,表明这3个样点的抗生素残留对生态环境存在较严重的威胁,其余采样点抗生素的联合毒性风险商处于0.1到1之间,需长期观测其抗生素的环境动态,以避免高风险危害的发生。该水库10种抗生素残留引起的非致癌物风险数量级在10~(-1)5到10~(-1)2之间,说明该水库中10种抗生素通过饮水途径引起的非致癌风险很低,远低于可接受风险水平,甚至远低于可忽略风险水平。     

Stability and structure of a fish community on a coral patch reef in Hawaii

Two complete collections of the fishes residing on an isolated coral patch reef ( 1500 m²) at Oahu, Hawaii, were made 11 years apart. Of the 112 species of fishes in both collections combined, only 40% were in common, but these made up more than 85% of the wet biomass in each collection. The two assemblages of fishes were similar in trophic structure and standing crop. Many coral reef fish communities are dominated by carnivorous forms. In the present study, planktivorous fishes were the most important trophic group in the community; this was related to abundant zooplankton resources. Following the second collection in 1977, recolonization by fishes was followed for 1 year. Recolonization proceeded rapidly and was primarily by juvenile fishes well beyond larval metamorphosis. Within 6 months of the second collection, the trophic structure had been re-established. The MacArthur-Wilson model of insular colonization described the recolonization process and predicted an equilibrium situation in less than 2 years. The recolonization data suggested that chance factors may explain the colonization process on a small scale, but a relatively deterministic pattern emerged when considering the entire reef. Thus, at the community level the fishes are a persistent and predictable entity.