施肥与不施肥措施下小麦田的CO2、CH4、N2O排放日变化特征

二氧化碳（CO2）、甲烷（CH4）、氧化亚氮（N2O）是对全球气候变化影响最大的温室气体。由于土壤与大气之间的水热交换需要一定的传导平衡时间,因此土壤温室气体与温湿度之间的关系存在不同的表现形式。目前,有关温室气体研究多集中于季节性排放特征,而关于CO2、CH4、N2O的日变化研究却少见报道。以北京小麦（Triticum aestivuml）农田土壤为研究对象,对施肥和不施肥条件下CO2、CH4、N2O交换通量和气温、土壤温度进行连续观测,来探讨3种温室气体的日变化特征。采用人工静态暗箱法对小麦田土壤进行连续48 h原位观测,每2 h测定1次,每次盖箱时间为30 min。气体样品中的CO2、CH4、N2O用气相色谱仪（Agilent 6890A,FID/ECD）测定。结果表明：施肥与不施肥条件下小麦生育后期麦田土壤CO2、CH4、N2O交换通量具有明显的日变化特征。土壤表现为CH4的吸收汇、CO2和N2O的排放源。CH4的吸收通量、CO2和N2O的排放通量均表现为施肥区＞对照区。CO2、CH4的交换通量的70%以上出现在白天,而施肥区和对照区的N2O白天排放通量分别达到全天的81.8%、91.1%。另外,相关性分析表明,CO2、N2O交换通量的日变化与气温和5 cm地温呈极显著（P＜0.01）或显著（P＜0.05）的正相关关系,且N2O交换通量日变化与10 cm地温呈现极显著的正相关关系,说明温度是影响CO2、N2O交换通量日变化的重要因素;而气温、5 cm地温、10 cm地温对CH4交换通量日变化不存在显著性影响。     

施肥与不施肥措施下小麦田的CO_2、CH_4、N_2O排放日变化特征

二氧化碳(CO2)、甲烷(CH4)、氧化亚氮(N2O)是对全球气候变化影响最大的温室气体。由于土壤与大气之间的水热交换需要一定的传导平衡时间,因此土壤温室气体与温湿度之间的关系存在不同的表现形式。目前,有关温室气体研究多集中于季节性排放特征,而关于CO2、CH4、N2O的日变化研究却少见报道。以北京小麦(Triticum aestivuml)农田土壤为研究对象,对施肥和不施肥条件下CO2、CH4、N2O交换通量和气温、土壤温度进行连续观测,来探讨3种温室气体的日变化特征。采用人工静态暗箱法对小麦田土壤进行连续48 h原位观测,每2 h测定1次,每次盖箱时间为30 min。气体样品中的CO2、CH4、N2O用气相色谱仪(Agilent 6890A,FID/ECD)测定。结果表明:施肥与不施肥条件下小麦生育后期麦田土壤CO2、CH4、N2O交换通量具有明显的日变化特征。土壤表现为CH4的吸收汇、CO2和N2O的排放源。CH4的吸收通量、CO2和N2O的排放通量均表现为施肥区对照区。CO2、CH4的交换通量的70%以上出现在白天,而施肥区和对照区的N2O白天排放通量分别达到全天的81.8%、91.1%。另外,相关性分析表明,CO2、N2O交换通量的日变化与气温和5 cm地温呈极显著(P0.01)或显著(P0.05)的正相关关系,且N2O交换通量日变化与10 cm地温呈现极显著的正相关关系,说明温度是影响CO2、N2O交换通量日变化的重要因素;而气温、5 cm地温、10 cm地温对CH4交换通量日变化不存在显著性影响。     

长期不同施肥条件下红壤小麦和玉米季CO2、N2O排放特征

基于中国农业科学院红壤实验站红壤旱地小麦-玉米轮作长期定位试验,采用静态箱/气相色谱法,研究红壤旱地连续施肥16 a后,不同施肥条件下小麦季和玉米季土壤CO2和N2O的排放特征。结果表明,CO2和N2O排放具有明显的季节性,施肥对土壤CO2和N2O排放有明显影响,且有机肥的施用显著促进了土壤CO2和N2O排放。不施肥对照（CK）、氮磷配施（NP）、氮钾配施（NK）、氮磷钾配施（NPK）和有机无机肥配施（NPKM）处理小麦季和玉米季土壤CO2累积排放量分别为5 904、8 062、4 298、9 235、14 098和4 708、7 530、5 435、7 089、15 472 kg.hm-2,土壤N2O累积排放量分别为0.34、0.63、0.44、0.62、1.00和0.25、0.39、0.35、0.52、1.73 kg.hm-2,小麦休闲期土壤CO2和N2 O累积排放量平均占小麦生长季的63.52%和28.43%,玉米休闲季平均占玉米生长季的49.98%和32.72%,说明休闲期土壤CO2和N2O累积排放量不容忽视。除玉米季NP、NK、NPK处理外,其他各处理小麦季和玉米季土壤CO2排放通量与5 cm深处土壤温度显著相关;而土壤N2O排放通量与土壤温度间均未表现出显著相关性;除NPKM处理外,其他各处理土壤CO2或N2O排放通量与土壤水分间相关性均未达显著水平。     

土壤湿度和浇水对紫色土土/气界面汞释放通量的影响

以重庆市的主要耕作土壤——紫色土为研究对象,用动力通量箱与RA-915＋汞分析仪联用技术,通过室内模拟实验研究土壤湿度和浇水对紫色土土/气界面汞交换通量的影响.结果表明,加入外源硝酸汞的土壤汞交换通量大于加入硝酸亚汞的土壤汞交换通量,对照土壤的汞释放通量最小.随着土壤含水量的增加,土/气界面汞交换通量有增加的趋势,在土...     

华北平原典型农业区土壤甲烷通量研究

利用静态箱法原位测定了华北农田不同施肥处理夏玉米和冬小麦生长季土壤甲烷的通量。结果表明 ,施肥农田夏玉米和冬小麦生长季甲烷通量分别为 -79.8和 -2 1.6μg·(m2 ·h) - 1 ,年平均通量为 -4 3 .1μg·(m2 ·h) - 1 。未施肥农田夏玉米和冬小麦生长季甲烷通量分别为 -110 .0和 -88.2 μg·(m2 ·h) - 1 ,年平均通量为 -95 .2 μg·(m2 ·h) - 1 。在不同生长季 ,各处理农田土壤甲烷通量均为负值 ,即土壤为大气甲烷的吸收“汇” ,在各个生长季施肥农田对甲烷的吸收量均低于未施肥农田 ,各处理冬小麦生长季土壤对CH4 的吸收量均低于同一处理的夏玉米生长季的吸收量 ;各处理甲烷通量具有较明显的季节变化 ,5月上旬至 9月中旬 ,土壤的甲烷吸收能力较强 ,其他时间吸收量较低 ;施肥土壤约比未施肥土壤对甲烷的氧化吸收能力降低 2 7%～ 76% ;试验区域内较大降水在一定时期内促进了土壤对甲烷的氧化     

吉林西部不同土地利用方式下的生长季土壤CO2排放通量日变化及影响因素

利用GXH-3051A红外线分析仪,采用动态闭合气室法对吉林西部4种土地利用方式下土壤CO2排放通量日变化进行了定位测量,系统分析了环境因子及土壤理化性质等因素对土壤CO2排放通量日变化的影响。结果表明,水田、旱田、草地和盐碱地土壤CO2排放通量日变化均呈单峰曲线,但排放通量的日均值有较大差异,其中水田和草地排放量较高,分别为1．69μmol·m-2．S-1和1．24μmaol·m-2s-1;旱田和盐碱地较低,为0．50μmol·m-2．S-1和0．63μmol·m-2．S-1。各地类土壤C02排放通量的日均值与其每天上午10：00土壤CO2排放通量值最为接近,即可用该时间测得的土壤CO2排放通量估测日平均值。土地利用方式和大气温度是造成土壤CO2日排放通量差异的主要因素,多年来该区土地利用方式的变化,改变了土壤表层10cm内的土层温度、土壤含水率、有机碳含量、水解氮含量,进而影响土壤呼吸和CO2排放通量;区内水田土壤CO2排放通量与温度的相关性最高（R2=0．8375）,其次为旱田和草地。     

吉林西部不同土地利用方式下的生长季土壤CO2排放通量日变化及影响因素

利用GXH-3051A红外线分析仪,采用动态闭合气室法对吉林西部4种土地利用方式下土壤CO2排放通量日变化进行了定位测量,系统分析了环境因子及土壤理化性质等因素对土壤CO2排放通量日变化的影响。结果表明,水田、旱田、草地和盐碱地土壤CO2排放通量日变化均呈单峰曲线,但排放通量的日均值有较大差异,其中水田和草地排放量较高,分别为1.69μmol.m-2.s-1和1.24μmol.m-2.s-1;旱田和盐碱地较低,为0.50μmol.m-2.s-1和0.63μmol.m-2.s-1。各地类土壤CO2排放通量的日均值与其每天上午10:00土壤CO2排放通量值最为接近,即可用该时间测得的土壤CO2排放通量估测日平均值。土地利用方式和大气温度是造成土壤CO2日排放通量差异的主要因素,多年来该区土地利用方式的变化,改变了土壤表层10 cm内的土层温度、土壤含水率、有机碳含量、水解氮含量,进而影响土壤呼吸和CO2排放通量;区内水田土壤CO2排放通量与温度的相关性最高(R2=0.837 5),其次为旱田和草地。     

长期不同施肥条件下红壤小麦和玉米季CO_2、N_2O排放特征

基于中国农业科学院红壤实验站红壤旱地小麦-玉米轮作长期定位试验,采用静态箱/气相色谱法,研究红壤旱地连续施肥16 a后,不同施肥条件下小麦季和玉米季土壤CO2和N2O的排放特征。结果表明,CO2和N2O排放具有明显的季节性,施肥对土壤CO2和N2O排放有明显影响,且有机肥的施用显著促进了土壤CO2和N2O排放。不施肥对照(CK)、氮磷配施(NP)、氮钾配施(NK)、氮磷钾配施(NPK)和有机无机肥配施(NPKM)处理小麦季和玉米季土壤CO2累积排放量分别为5 904、8 062、4 298、9 235、14 098和4 708、7 530、5 435、7 089、15 472 kg.hm-2,土壤N2O累积排放量分别为0.34、0.63、0.44、0.62、1.00和0.25、0.39、0.35、0.52、1.73 kg.hm-2,小麦休闲期土壤CO2和N2 O累积排放量平均占小麦生长季的63.52%和28.43%,玉米休闲季平均占玉米生长季的49.98%和32.72%,说明休闲期土壤CO2和N2O累积排放量不容忽视。除玉米季NP、NK、NPK处理外,其他各处理小麦季和玉米季土壤CO2排放通量与5 cm深处土...     

南京地区地表热通量的遥感反演分析

利用南京地区2013年8月11日、2013年10月14日、2014年1月2日和2014年5月26日的4景Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS1B遥感影像,结合地面气象观测资料,借助SEBAL模型反演了南京地区地表热通量,并利用地表温度实测数据进行验证,且与他人研究结果进行了比较。结果表明,(1)南京净辐射通量与土壤热通量表现为春季最大,夏季次之,冬季最小;感热通量呈暖季(春、夏)大于冷季(秋、冬)的特征;秋季潜热通量最大,冬季最低,夏春季居中。(2)南京净辐射通量值为长江最高,均值达614.8 W·m~(-2);湖泊与林地次高,均值大于500 W·m~(-2);旧城、草地、农田较高,均值在480~500 W·m~(-2)之间;裸地与新城最低,均低于460 W·m~(-2)。土壤热通量值为旧城、裸地、新城最高,均值在75~85 W·m~(-2)之间;湖泊、农田、草地次之,均值在65~75 W·m~(-2)之间;长江与林地最低,均值低于60 W·m~(-2)。感热通量值为城区最高,均值均高于200 W·m~(-2);林地、裸地、农田、草地次之,均值在100~200 W·m~(-2)之间;水体区域最低,均低于60 W·m~(-2)。潜热通量值为水体区域最高,均值高于400 W·m~(-2);林地、草地、农田、裸地次高,均值在220~320 W·m~(-2)之间;城区潜热通量最低,均低于200 W·m~(-2)。(3)土壤热通量占净辐射的比值除冬季均低于0.1外,其余季节均在0.05~0.25之间;新老城区的感热通量占净辐射比值在四季典型日均高于0.4,除春季的裸地和冬季外,其余土地利用类型均低于0.3,水体区域均低于0.15。潜热通量占净辐射比值为水体区域在四季均高于0.7,新老城区均低于0.5,除春夏季裸地和冬季的林地外,其余土地利用类型均高于0.5。不同土地利用类型的波文比呈现"新城旧城裸地林地农田草地湖泊长江"的空间分布和"春季冬季夏季秋季"的时间分布。新城区的波文比在四季典型日均为最高,且均值大于1,而水体的均为最低,均值小于0.2。     

水旱轮作土壤-小麦系统CO2排放及其影响因素

利用静态箱/气相色谱法对川中丘陵区水旱轮作区的小麦进行全生长季CO2排放观测.结果表明,(1)土壤-小麦系统的CO2排放通量存在着明显的日变化.凌晨400～600排放量最低,随着温度的升高,CO2的排放量逐渐增大,在午后100～300达到峰值.分析表明,气温和地表温度与土壤-小麦系统CO2排放通量之间存在显著的相关关系.(2)土壤-小麦系统CO2排放都有明显的季节变化.分析表明,小麦生物量和气温与土壤-小麦系统CO2排放季节变化之间存在显著的相关关系.(3)在小麦各个生育期中,CO2平均排放通量常规处理>无氮处理>空白>裸地.水旱轮作区小麦常规处理、无氮处理、空白点和裸地的CO2排放通量的平均值分别为574.51、362.23、239.91、129.47 mg/(m2·h).在小麦的各个生育期中,RH、RAR和RAS对土壤-小麦系统CO2排放的贡献率分别为20%、20%和60%.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques