天津大气PM_(2.5)垂直特征及边界层影响

利用2006年12月17日至2007年1月1日天津250 m气象铁塔40 m、120 m、220 m高度PM2.5浓度监测资料及铁塔边界层气象资料,分析了不同天气背景下PM2.5随时间、高度变化的分布特征,研究了铁塔边界层气象条件包括逆温、特征摩擦速度、湍流动量和热量对PM2.5的影响,发现垂直PM2.5细粒子的浓度高低与天气背景及边界层气象条件是密切相关。边界层垂直动力和热力变化影响着PM2.5浓度的变化,冷空气过境时刻,PM2.5浓度达到最高峰值。40 m高度出现一个临界摩擦速度0.4 m/s,高浓度PM2.5比较集中在摩擦速度小于0.4 m/s的区域内,大于0.4 m/s这个摩擦速度,边界层的垂直湍流动量及水平和垂直方向的热量输送通量就会明显的变化,因而促使PM2.5在空中的扩散或沉降。也就是说,当摩擦速度小于0.4 m/s时,有利于PM2.5在空中的累积,PM2.5浓度趋于增高的趋势;反之,有利于PM2.5扩散,PM2.5浓度趋于减小的趋势。     

气象条件对承德市臭氧重污染天气的影响

利用承德市国家基本气象站的气象资料和承德市环境监测站的O_3监测资料,分析了2015年5月22日—6月1日承德市O_3重污染过程的气象条件。研究发现,5月22日—6月1日O_3污染呈先加重后减轻的趋势,25日O_3污染最严重;O_3浓度日分布呈单峰型,午后浓度高而清晨浓度低。承德市O_3污染天气发生时的天气形势为500 hPa受高压脊控制,850 hPa有大于20℃的暖中心,并有强暖平流向承德地区输送,海平面气压场受低压前部和高压后部的均压场影响,盛行偏南气流。有利于O_3污染的气象条件为气温高、风速大、辐射强、日照时数长、气压低、相对湿度低,能见度影响小。此次O_3污染过程气象扩散条件较好,气象条件对O_3污染的作用主要表现为促进O_3污染物的生成和区域传输。京津冀中北部地区O_3污染严重,在南风和西南风的作用下唐山市和北京市对承德市的O_3污染有输送作用。     

沈阳地区霾的环境特征研究

利用沈阳市1961—2009年的气象资料,分析了霾天气出现的年季特征及其天气形势特征。利用边界层气象资料与污染物质量浓度资料对特定的霾过程从边界层到污染物质量浓度条件进行了分析。结果表明：沈阳地区霾的出现呈现逐年上升的趋势,近5 a平均每年为120 d左右,目前霾天数已经占到了全年的30%~40%。冬秋季节出现霾天气较多,秋冬两季霾日数占全年霾日总数的75%。凌晨到上午是霾出现的高发期,02—08时霾出现频率占总霾数的44.5%。霾的出现主要发生在冬秋季节冷空气势力不强,大气扩散能力较弱,边界层出现逆温时刻。接地逆温层厚度常常稳定在200~300 m高度左右,PM10质量浓度与能见度（霾）呈负相关,相关系数-0.402 7。风速与能见度（霾）呈正相关,相关系数为0.886 4。     

天津夏季地面O3浓度变化规律与影响因素

臭氧是城市污染大气中的首要光化学污染物,其变化规律与前体物(NO、NO2和CO)和气象因素关系密切.利用2008年夏季天津城区地面大气O3、相关前体物和气象因素等观测数据,研究了O3浓度水平和时间变化规律,重点分析了7月3日-8月5日O3与NO、NO2和CO等前体物及气象因素(气温、相对湿度和风速)的相关性.结果表明,天津城区夏季O3存在一定的污染,超标时段多发生在13:00-19:00,这一时段对应高温、低湿、大风的天气条件;NO、NO2和CO作为O3的前体物,昼间其浓度与O3浓度呈线性负相关,夜间相互作用较为复杂,相关性显著降低;气象因素对O3浓度影响明显,高温、低湿利于光化学反应的进行,O3浓度与风速呈正相关表明可能有外来源的存在.     

邯郸采暖期环境污染特征及空气质量预报方法研究

利用河北邯郸气象和环境监测资料,分析了邯郸采暖期空气质量和环境气象条件特征;同时利用线性回归和BP神经网络统计方法对采暖期空气质量进行了预报研究。结果表明,PM_(10)、PM_(2.5)、SO_2、NO_2、CO(95)(CO日均值的第95百分位数)的空气质量指数(AQI)在冬季最高,夏季最低,O_3-8(90)(O_3日最大8 h值的第90百分位数)的AQI则相反。邯郸采暖期首要污染物以PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)为主,除O_3-8(90)外,其他5种污染物采暖期AQI均高于其年均值;同时采暖期降水少,温度低,小风出现频率明显高于非采暖期,而且局地逆温强,静稳天气指数高,是全年环境气象条件最差的时期。邯郸采暖期的环境气象条件1月最差,且夜晚差于白天,尤其是局地5—7时。邯郸采暖期首要污染物浓度与前一日污染物浓度、静稳指数、逆温、相对湿度和露点温度等呈正相关,与气温、风速、能见度和混合层高度等呈负相关。BP神经网络模型对污染物浓度的预报效果优于线性回归模型,可尝试应用于邯郸空气质量预报工作。     

天津城区大气气溶胶质量浓度分布特征与影响因素

根据中国气象局天津大气边界层观测站2009年的气溶胶观测资料和同期气象资料,对天津城区PM10和PM2.5质量浓度变化特征,及其与气象条件的相互关系进行研究,结果表明：PM10和PM2.5年均质量浓度为153.24和68.78μg·m-3,其日均值超标率近半,表明南部城区尤其是交通干道附近气溶胶污染较为严重;PM10和PM2.5质量浓度逐月变化呈现明显的冬季高、夏季低的特征,其日变化特征呈明显的双峰型,早晚污染高峰主要受交通源影响;气象条件对气溶胶质量浓度作用显著,气溶胶质量浓度与气温正相关,相对湿度的增高易导致细粒子吸湿性增长,但高湿状态下易引起降水有利于气溶胶的湿清除,西南气流和偏北风是PM10和PM2.5高浓度的主要影响风向,静小风易造成气溶胶堆积,高风速可引起PM10排放增多,但对PM2.5影响不大。     

天津市近地层PM2．5的垂直分布特征

大气细颗粒物PM2.5是导致城市能见度降低的重要原因之一,研究低层大气细颗粒物的垂直分布特征,利于了解边界层内污染物的大气物理化学反应机制,能为大气污染综合治理决策提供新的科学数据.2006年8月16日-2007年8月31日期间以天津市255 m气象塔为观测平台,分别在40 m、120 m和220 m 3个不同高度进行大气污染物PM2.5质量浓度和气象要素的同步观测.对观测资料的分析表明:PM2.5质量浓度季节变化规律非常明显,冬季最高,春季最低.PM2.5日变化特征非常明显,呈明显的双峰变化规律:冬季峰值最大、春季最小.边界层内PM2.5质量浓度在各个高度存在明显差异,受逆温层影响,四个季节的早晨第一个峰值出现时间随高度增加均存在滞后现象,PM2.5从地面扩散到220 m大约需要2 h.各个观测高度PM2.5质量浓度随风向变化不大,得到天津市细粒子主要是由本地源生成的结论.     

湖北省主要观测站PM_(2.5)污染特征及气象要素的影响分析

有关湖北省PM2.5污染的时空分布、影响因素及成因的研究较少,分析PM2.5污染特征及气象因素的影响,对科学治理湖北省PM2.5污染具有重要意义。利用2017年和2018年1—3月湖北省7个大气成分观测站逐小时PM2.5质量浓度及平均气温、降水量、相对湿度、10 min平均风速和风向等地面气象观测资料,运用多元逐步线性回归法,探讨PM2.5的变化特征及其与气象因素的关系。结果表明,(1)湖北大气成分监测站PM2.5具有明显的时间变化规律,从日变化上看,除金沙站全天变化平缓外,其他6站PM2.5日变化呈双峰双谷型分布,双峰出现在10:00—11:00和20:00—22:00,双谷出现在06:00—08:00和15:00—17:00。各站PM2.5日均质量浓度变化范围为2.7～269.1μg?m-3,其变化幅度最大值通常出现在1月份。从月份上看,1—3月PM2.5月均质量浓度呈下降趋势;各站PM2.5平均质量浓度介于42.3～90.9μg?m-3,金沙最低而荆州最高;PM2.5质量浓度日均值平均超标率42.3%,其中3月平均超标率22.2%,明显低于1月56.7%和2月50.7%。(2)平均气温、降水量、风速和相对湿度4个近地面气象因素对黄石、金沙和武汉PM2.5质量浓度的影响大而对荆州影响最小,其中平均气温和风速为主要影响因素;具体而言,荆门、宜昌和武汉颗粒物质量浓度主要受气温引起的垂直输送及风速引起的水平扩散影响,襄阳、金沙和黄石则主要受大气中水分变化导致的粒子生成及沉降清除作用影响。(3)各站PM2.5质量浓度水平和变化特征差异在于监测点地理位置和周边环境、城市经济水平和气候气象条件的不同。     

辽宁中部城市群大气污染分布及典型重污染的成因

通过分析2002年辽宁中部城市群的大气污染分布状况,将1月17~19日作为典型污染日,分析其污染状况及对应的气象条件,得出该地区典型重污染的气象条件是:风速小,日均风速小于2m/s,且都是局地风的影响;逆温严重,贴地逆温持续的时间长,大约持续到中午11时左右,逆温层的厚度大,5个城市逆温层的平均厚度大约在550~600 m,逆温层的强度大,5个城市的强度大约在0.9℃/hm~2.6℃/hm之间变化;从天气形势上来看,该地区冬季典型污染日主要受长白山小高压及东北地形槽的影响,大气状态非常稳定。     

煤炭工业城市近地面臭氧变化特征及其与气象条件的关联

考察太原城区10个国控点O3日浓度变化,并分析了其与相关气象因子(能见度、大气压、空气温度、空气湿度、风速和风向)的关系.研究结果表明,夏季平均O3浓度变化最大;春季O3平均浓度变化次之,冬季变化最小;全年O3平均浓度均低于国家环境空气质量的最高标准.对各国控点日O3浓度的相关性进行聚类分析,结果显示,城市新兴繁荣区和传统重工业区等人类活动频繁的区域(GroupⅠ)的O3浓度变化的持续时间要明显高于过渡区域(GroupⅡ).城区全年时间尺度上,O3均与能见度、空气温度、空气湿度和风速存在极显著的相关性(n=365,P0.001).小波分析结果显示城区O3时间序列的变化周期为以4 d的短周期为主(P0.05),且在6—7月与空气温度和空气湿度存在严格的线性同步变化特征,在11月则与可见度存在近似严格的线性同步变化特征.西西北风对O3浓度影响最大,全年影响频率达50%;而夏季受此影响频率高达60%,秋季西西北风和西北北风对O3浓度的影响频率相近(约40%).     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Use of stochastic patch occupancy models in the California red-legged frog for Bayesian inference regarding past events and future persistence

Assessing causes of population decline is critically important to management of threatened species. Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs) are popular tools for examining spatial and temporal dynamics of populations when presence–absence data in multiple habitat patches are available. We developed a Bayesian Markov chain method that extends existing SPOMs by focusing on past environmental changes that may have altered occupancy patterns prior to the beginning of data collection. Using occupancy data from 3 creeks, we applied the method to assess 2 hypothesized causes of population decline—in situ die-off and residual impact of past source population loss—in the California red-legged frog. Despite having no data for the 20–30 years between the hypothetical event leading to population decline and the first data collected, we were able to discriminate among hypotheses, finding evidence that in situ die-off increased in 2 of the creeks. Although the creeks had comparable numbers of occupied segments, owing to different extinction–colonization dynamics, our model predicted an 8-fold difference in persistence probabilities of their populations to 2030. Adding a source population led to a greater predicted persistence probability than did decreasing the in situ die-off, emphasizing that reversing the deleterious impacts of a disturbance may not be the most efficient management strategy. We expect our method will be useful for studying dynamics and evaluating management strategies of many species.