Environmental Accumulation of Airborne Fluorides in Romania

The nature and extent of pollution from an aluminium smelter and a fertiliser factory in Romania were studied. These are large industrial complexes, and both types of industry are known to release fluorides into the atmosphere. In grass samples collected from around the aluminium smelter, the maximum fluoride levels were found to be 4023mgkg^–1 and 162mgkg^–1 in unwashed and washed grass samples respectively, and 89mgkg^–1 in soils. For the fertiliser factory, the maximum levels in washed grasses were found to be 207mgkg^–1, and 11mgkg^–1 in the soils. In both locations, these maximum values were obtained in samples collected from within 200m of the factory limits, and compare with regional background levels of less than 10mgkg^–1 for grasses and 2mgkg^–1 for soils. The high fluoride levels of fluoride in the grasses are sufficient to give cause for concern for the effects that these could have on the local population and on grazing animals.     

Lead and cadmium in urban allotment and garden soils and vegetables in the United Kingdom

In order to assess the intake of lead and cadmium by consumers of home grown vegetables in urban areas, replicated experimental plots of uniform size, comprising summer and winter crops, were established in 94 gardens and allotments in nine towns and cities in England.The geometric mean lead and cadmium concentrations for the soils (n = 94) were 217 g g^–1 (ranging from 27 to 1,676 g g^–1) and 0.53 g g^–1 (<0.2–5.9 g g^–1), respectively. Compared with agricultural soils, the garden and allotment soils contained elevated levels of lead but not cadmium.Lead concentrations in the vegetables ranged from <0.25 g g^–1 to 16.7 g g^–1 dry weight and cadmium concentrations ranged from <0.025 g g^–1 to 10.4 g g^–1 dry weight. Lead concentrations were higher than reported background levels, although <1% exceeded the statutory limit for saleable food in the UK (1 g g^–1 fresh weight). Cadmium concentrations were generally similar to background levels.     

Heavy metal pollution in Jamaica 1: Survey of cadmium,lead and zinc concentrations in the Kintyre and Hope Flat districts

Despite its being highly mineralised, the Hope Mine area has become a residential district. Composite soil samples taken from 91 allotments show values for cadmium: < 2–220 mg kg^–1, lead: 6–38,000 mg kg^–1, and zinc: 66–40,000 mg kg^–1. Water samples from adits contain 52–86 g kg^–1 of lead and < 1–2 hg kg^–1 of cadmium. The soil contents of cadmium and lead in at least two areas suggest that remedial actions should be considered. Blood lead levels for 33 children aged between ten months and seven years are in the range 5.7–57 g dl^–1; haemoglobin levels vary between 9.7 and 12.7 mg dl^–1. There is no obvious relationship between Pb and haemoglobin levels. Further geochemical work to define fully the spatial extent of the polluted region and epidemiological studies including intelligence testing to define further the effects of lead on children in this environment would be valuable.To whom correspondence should be addressed.     

Background levels of soil beryllium in several countries

Beryllium and aluminium contents in uncontaminated soils from six countries are reported. The means and ranges of beryllium in the surface soils were as follows: 1.43(0.20–5.50)g g^–1 in Thailand (n=28), 0.7 (0.31–1.03) g g^–1 in Indonesia (n=12), 0.99(0.82–1.32) g g^–1 in New Zealand (n=3), 0.58(0.08-1.68)g g^–1 in Brazil (n=16), 3.52(2.49–4.97)g g^–1 in the former Yugoslavia (n=10), and 1.56(1.01–2.73) g g^–1 in the former USSR (n=8). The mean and range of beryllium contents of the surface soils in Japan (1.17(0.27–1.95)g g^–1 n=27) are situated within the values of the soils from these countries except for the Yugoslav soils derived from limestones. The mean of the mean beryllium contents of the surface soils in all these countries is 1.42 g g^–1 which will be used as a tentative average content of beryllium in uncontaminated surface soils, except for the soils derived from parent materials high in beryllium content. The beryllium contents of the subsoils were higher than those of the surface soils in New Zealand and Yugoslavia as is the case with Japan. The correlation coefficient between the contents of beryllium and aluminium in all the soil samples (n=113) including surface soils and subsoils was 0.505 (p < 0.001).     

Pilot study of sources of lead exposure in Moscow,Russia

This preliminary investigation of sources of lead exposure in Moscow, Russia, by Russian and US collaborators measured lead in paint, interior dust, and drinking water in seven day-care centres, and in petrol, soil and canned food. Some paint samples exceeded US regulatory standards for lead in paint on surfaces (0.5%). Dust lead loadings were < 1.7 g cm^–2 and below the guidance levels of the US EPA. Drinking water lead concentrations were at or below the US drinking water standard of 15 g L^–1. Lead concentrations in petrol from Moscow vehicles and petrol stations were consistent with a regulation banning the sale of leaded petrol within the Moscow City limits. Except for baby food, lead levels were higher in the Russian canned foods (range 6 to 1240 g kg^–1, dry weight) compared to corresponding US canned foods, with ratios of Russian to US levels of up to 120:1 for evaporated milk. Lead concentrations in soil generally ranged from 500 to 2000 g g^–1, levels that would trigger hazard reduction measures according to US EPA guidance. These findings, together with the use of lead in petrol outside Moscow, indicate multiple sources of lead exposure in Russia. Priorities for future research are discussed including the establishment of interlaboratory quality control programmes.     

Effect of heavy metals (Zn,Hg, Cu,Cd, Pb,Ni) on the length growth of Mytilus edulis

The shortterm (10–22 d) effect of Zn, Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Ni on the length growth of Mytilus edulis is studied. Significant reductions of growth rate was found at 0.3 g Hgl^-1, 3 g Cul^-1, 10 g Znl^-1, and 10 g Cdl^-1 added to the local sea water, while concentrations of up to 200 gl^-1 of Pb and Ni had no effect on the growth. With exposure to Cu and Zn, there was a linear reduction in growth rate with increasing metal concentration up to about 6 g Cul^-1 and 100 g Znl^-1. Above these levels, growth stopped with Cu, while with Zn it was stabilized at about 20% of control growth. When Hg and Cd were added, a curvilinear relationship between growth and metal concentration is indicated. With Hg, growth rate is nearly zero above 3–4 g Hgl^-1, while the growth rate was 50% of control after 10 d of exposure to 100 g Cdl^-1. At 2 g Cdl^-1 there was a significant stimulation of length increase. Observed EC₅₀-values for growth were 0.3–0.4 g Hgl^-1, 3–4 g Cul^-1, 60 g Znl^-1, and 100 g Cdl^-1.     

Lead in New Orleans soils: New images of an urban environment

This paper describes a survey of lead in soil and computer generated maps that have been derived for New Orleans, Louisiana. The soil survey included streetside, houseside and open space samples. Because the survey covered every census tract in the metropolitan area it was possible to construct a computer-generated map of the distribution of lead dust in the soils of the urban environment. The data base consists of coordinates, site characteristics and lead analytical results of 3,704 soil samples. The resulting graphics show peaks of lead ranging from 600–1,200 g per g in the streetside soil of the inner-city and a steeply declining slope to the suburban areas of the city where the lead content of streetside soils is less than 75 g/g. In the inner-city, the amount of lead in soils found near building foundations is 10 to 20 times higher than the soils adjacent to streets where the median lead content of soils is over 300 g g^–1. In areas surrounding the city core (mid-city), the amount of lead next to the foundation and adjacent to the street are equivalent with medians of 110 g g^–1. In suburban locations, the median lead content of soil along streetsides is 86 g g^–1. Soils adjacent to surburban foundations has a median Pb content of 50 g g^–1. The lowest median lead content in soil is found in open spaces, ranging from 212 to 40 to 28 g g^–1, respectively, for the inner-city, mid-city, and suburbs. These observations are consistent with the production and consumer use of lead-based paint and leaded-fuels within the modern city.     

Lead exposure in Saudi Arabia from the use of traditional cosmetics and medical remedies

Twenty Henna samples were collected and analysed for lead by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometry after a microwave acid digestion procedure. The mean lead concentration was 5.50 g g^–1, with a range from 1.29 g g^–1 to 16.48 g g^–1. The data did not show a high concentration of lead in these samples. However, if we take into account the popular use of henna, the cumulative effects of prolonged exposure to low lead especially in children cannot be ruled out.     

Environmental Geochemistry of Soils and Waters of Susaki Area, Korinthos, Greece

Soil and water samples were collected from the Susaki area of Korinthos and analysed for heavy metals in order to evaluate their environmental impact. The geology of the studied area includes ultrabasic rocks and Neogene and Quaternary deposits whereas magnesite veins are found within the ultrabasic rocks. In the north part of the studied area post volcanic emissions of H₂S, CO₂ and H₂O vapor continue to the present day. All the samples were analysed for heavy metals by the ICP method. The element ranges (in g g^–1) for soil samples are: Cu 11–63, Pb 5–256, Zn 21–604, Ni 183–2665, Co 12–124, Mn 456–1434, As 5–104, Sr 44–730, V 21–84, Cr 163–2346, Ba 48–218, Zr 3–41, Y 3–13. The metals Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Cr, Fe, Cu, Mn, As and Sr are enriched in the Susaki soils. The element ranges for water samples are: Cu 65–103ppb, Pb<10ppb, Zn<5ppb, Ni 21–163ppb, Co 2–12ppb, As<30ppb, Cr<20ppb, Ba 36–785ppb, Sb<10ppb, W<10ppb, Bi<30ppb, Mn 0.0–0.9 g g^–1, Fe 0.01–0.22 g g^–1, Na 843–3076 g g^–1, K 98–278 g g^–1, Si 39–65 g g^–1, P 0.1–0.2 g g^–1. There is a natural pollution of soils with elevated concentrations of Ni, Co, Mn, Fe and Cr due to the presence of ultrabasic rocks. Another natural case of As pollution of soils is due to the volcanic activity and the geothermal field in the area. The geochemical data of ground waters and also the ¹⁸, D data showed a mixing in different proportions between sea water and meteoric water.     

An assessment of lead absorption from soil affected by smelter emissions

The purpose of this study was to assess the oral bioavailability of lead in soil collected from a former smelter site in Sandy, Utah, USA. Sprague-Dawley rats (approximately 4 weeks of age, 5 of each sex in group) were given either soil lead or lead acetate mixed in a purified diet (AIN-93G ) at four different concentrations for 31 consecutive days. Food consumption measurements were used to compute mean daily lead exposures for the soil lead and lead acetate groups. The lead acetate treatment yielded higher concentrations of lead in the blood and bone than the soil lead treatment. Mean blood lead values ranged from below the detection limit (3 g dL^–1) to 27.25 g lead dL^–1 for the lead acetate groups at dose levels of 0.10–2.91 mg lead kg body weight^–1 and from below the detection limit to 8.8 g lead dL^–1 for the soil lead groups at doses of 0.11–3.43 mg lead kg body weight^–1. At these same doses, mean bone values ranged from 0.52 to 26.92 g lead g^–1 for the lead acetate groups and from 0.64 to 13.1 g lead g^–1 for the soil lead groups. Relative per cent bioavailability was estimated by modelling the dose-blood concentration curves for the lead acetate treatment and the dosed soil lead treatment, and then comparing doses that produce an equivalent blood lead concentration. The ratio of the doses of lead acetate and soil lead that produced the same tissue response (i.e., concentration) provided an index of relative bioavailability. For lead, the bioavailability of soil lead relative to lead acetate was 41% at a blood concentration of 6 g lead dL^–1.     

A role forAmanita muscaria L. in the circulation of cadmium and vanadium in a non-polluted woodland

The sporophore of the fungusAmanita muscaria L. contains greatiy elevated levels of cadmium (29.9 g g^–1 dwt) and vanadium (344.9 g g^–1 dwt) in comparison with the soil in a birch woodland (total (HNO₃-extractabie Cd 0.4 g g^–1 dwt, V 11.7 g g^–1 dwt). The significance of this remarkable concentration of normally rare and dispersed elements in terms of their circulation in the woodland has been investigated. Both elements are released from sporophore tissue in a form which can be taken up by a test plant (lettuce), cultivated in the woodland soil amended with different quantities of sporophore tissue, Cadmium levels in all plant tissues were elevated in comparison to the non-amended controls; only root vanadium levels responded to the amendment of the soil. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for the natural cycling of both elements. It is calculated that an abundant population of sporophores could circulate 1.4% of the total cadmium and 0.65% of the total vanadium pool found in the litter layer and 0–5 cm soil horizon in the sampled woodland over a period of 14 days (mean life span of a sporophore).     

Influence of industry on the geochemical urban environment of Mieres (Spain) and associated health risk

This study is concerned with the elemental composition of soils and street dust collected in an historical industrial city of approximately 27 000 inhabitants, where old Hg mining and metallurgical activities strongly affected the load of heavy metals in the urban environment. For the purpose of the study, representative samples of soils and street dust were collected at different locations in the whole urban area (3 km²). Elevated mean concentrations of As in soils and street dust (69 and 135 g g^–1, respectively), and Hg (3.07 and 4.24 g g^–1, respectively), compared to background levels and to those found in other cities, reflect the anomalous geochemical nature of these materials and the strong influence exerted by the old mining sites.     

Geochemistry of an arsenic anomaly in St. Elizabeth, Jamaica

A soil arsenic anomaly with concentrations up to 400g As g^–1 was discovered near Maggotty, St. Elizabeth, during an islandwide geochemical survey of Jamaica. Detailed sampling and chemical analysis of soil samples confirmed the arsenic levels and led to a better definition of the size of the anomaly. The area exceeding the 95th percentile (>65g As g^–1) of the islandwide concentrations has been determined to be at least 10km². The anomalous values may be the result of an ancient hot spring environment which was responsible for the introduction and deposition of Fe–As–S as pyrite and arsenopyrite in the limestone bedrock, which were subsequently oxidised and weathered to yield the arsenic rich soils. These soils were also enhanced in elements such as Sb, Fe and Co. Despite the high soil arsenic content, the arsenic concentration in the surface water is low and there seems to be no immediate health risk to the residents. The area, however, does present a potential hazard with changing land use.     

The pattern of cadmium in the environment of five Minnesota cities

This paper reports on the cadmium results of a soil survey conducted by the State of Minnesota during the summer of 1986. The survey collected soil-dust trom the oldest census tracts of Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, St. Cloud and Rochester. The results reveal fundamental differences in soil cadmium among cities. Soil cadmium exceeds 2 g g^–1 in 8.4% of the samples in Minneapolis, and 7.0, 4.0, 3.3 and 1.5% respectively of the samples collected in St. Paul, Duluth, St. Cloud and Rochester. Minneapolis and St. Paul residential houseside soil samples had cadmium levels that exceeded 2 g g^–1 in 24.5 and 21.2% respectively of the samples collected. By comparison, the Minneapolis and St. Paul residential streetside soil samples had cadmium levels that exceeded 2 g g^–1 in 1.2 and 0.6%, respectively, of the samples collected. Also the Minneapolis and St. Paul residential midyard soil samples had cadmium levels that exceeded 2 g g^–1 in 1.9 and 5.5%, respectively, of the samples collected. Cadmium levels for the combined data for all cities and communities in Minneapolis appears to be directly related to traffic flow. However, cadmium levels around housesides and in midyards do not follow patterns of traffic flow in the same manner as cadmium content of soils along streetsides. St. Paul has an anomalously high cadmium content toward the east of the city compared with the west side of the city. The Pigs Eye sewage sludge incinerator located east of the city is the most likely source of cadmium to cause this pattern. This study provides essential urban background information about both the fundamental environmental patterns of cadmium as well as processes which appear to operate to cause those patterns.     

Thallium in marine plankton

Concentrations of thallium in phytoplankton (0.02 to 0.8 g g^–1), zooplankton (0.03 to 0.5 g g^–1) and ichthyoplankton (0.1 g g^–1) from the central Pacific were comparable , as were the atomic ratios of thallium to calcium (3x10^–6) and to potassium (1x10^–6) in those organisms. These relatively constant ratios, plus the biounlimited ocean profile of thallium, indicate that it is rapidly cycled through plankton in the same manner as potassium, its principal biogeochemical analogue. The higher atomic ratios of thallium to potassium in pelagic clays (6x10^–6) and ferromanganese nodules (4x10^–3) suggest that both biological transport processes and abiotic transport processes influence this trace element's oceanic cycle.     

Uptake of dissolved organic matter by larval stage of the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci

The life-history of the crown-of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) includes a planktotrophic larva that is capable of feeding on particulate food. It has been proposed, however, that particulate food (e.g. microalgae) is scarce in tropical water columns relative to the nutritional requirements of the larvae of A. planci, and that periodic shortages of food play an important role in the biology of this species. It has also been proposed that non-particulate sources of nutrition (e.g. dissolved organic matter, DOM) may fuel part of the nutritional requirements of the larval development of A. planci as well. The present study addresses the ability of A. planci larvae to take up several DOM species and compares rates of DOM uptake to the energy requirements of the larvae. Substrates transported in this study have been previously reported to be transported by larval asteroids from temperate and antarctic waters. Transport rates (per larval A. planci) increased steadily during larval development and some substrates had among the highest mass-specific transport rates ever reported for invertebrate larvae. Maximum transport rates (J _max ⁱⁿ) for alanine increased from 15.5 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 (13.2 pmol g^–1 h^–1) for gastrulas (J _max ⁱⁿ=38.7 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 or 47.4 pmol g^–1 h^–1) to 35.0 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 (13.1 pmol g^–1 h^–1) for early brachiolaria (J _max ⁱⁿ just prior to settlement=350.0 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 or 161.1 pmol g^–1 h^–1) at 1 M substrate concentrations. The instantaneous metabolic demand for substrates by gastrula, bipinnaria and brachiolaria stage larvae could be completely satisfied by alanine concentrations of 11, 1.6 and 0.8 M, respectively. Similar rates were measured in this study for the essential amino acid leucine, with rates increasing from 11.0 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 (or 9.4 pmol g^–1 h^–1) for gastrulas (J _max ⁱⁿ=110.5 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 or 94.4 pmol g^–1 h^–1) to 34.0 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 (or 13.0 pmol g^–1 h^–1) for late brachiolaria (J _max ⁱⁿ=288.9 pmol larva^–1 h^–1 or 110.3 pmol g^–1 h^–1) at 1 M substrate concentrations. The essential amino acid histidine was transported at lower rates (1.6 pmol g^–1 h^–1 at 1 M for late brachiolaria). Calculation of the energy contribution of the transported species revealed that larvae of A. planci can potentially satisfy 0.6, 18.7, 29.9 and 3.3% of their total energy requirements (instantaneous energy demand plus energy added to larvae as biomass) during embryonic and larval development from external concentrations of 1 M of glucose, alanine, leucine and histidine, respectively. These data demonstrate that a relatively minor component of the DOM pool in seawater (dissolved free amino acids, DFAA) can potentially provide significant amounts of energy for the growth and development of A. planci during larval development.     

Amino acid uptake and respiration by marine heterotrophs

The concentration and turnover of dissolved free amino acids were measured in samples from 25 and 100 m on three occasions at a station 6 miles off the California (USA) coast. Individual amino acid concentrations varied from undetectable (<0.05 g/l) to 3 g/l, the total amino acid concentration from 1.8 to 8.5 g/l. The greater concentration of total amino acids was always found at 25 m. The predominant amino acids were serine, lysine, aspartate, glutamate and alanine; reliable analyses could not be made for glycine because of a high blank. For the 10 individual amino acids studied, the rate of heterotrophic turnover ranged from undetectable to 1.2 g/l day^-1; serine, aspartate, alanine and glutamate showed the highest rates. In samples from 25 m, the rates were 15 to 20 times higher than those taken from 100 m. The total calculated flux of the amino acids studied varied from 0.015 to 3.2 g/l day^-1 and amounted to 1–10% of photosynthetic carbon dioxide fixation.     

Effects of light intensity on nitrate and nitrite uptake and excretion by Chaetoceros curvisetus

Michaelis-Menten uptake kinetics were observed at all light intensities. With constant illumination, the V_max and K₁ in nitrate uptake over the natural light intensity range of 0 to 2000 E were 0.343 g-at NO₃–N(g)^-1 at protein-N h^-1 and 26 E, respectively. Nitrate uptake was inhibited at higher light intensities. The K_s for nitrate uptake did not vary as a function of light intensity remaining relatively constant at 0.62 g-at NO₃–N 1^-1. With intermittent illumination, the V_mzx for light intensity in nitrate uptake over a light intensity range of 0 to 5000 E was 0.341 g-at NO₃–N(g)^-1-at protein-N h^-1. No inhibition of nitrate uptake was observed at higher than natural light intensities. Chaetoceros curvisetus will probably never experience light inhibition of nitrate uptake under natural conditions.     

Current uses of the EPA lead model to assess health risk and action levels for soil

The EPA lead model predicts mean blood lead levels and risk of elevated blood lead levels in children based on lead uptake from multiple sources. In the latest model versions, environmental data from individual homes within a community can be used to predict the overall blood lead distribution and percent risk of exceeding a specific blood lead level (i.e. 10 g dl^–1). Recent criteria used by the EPA to evaluate this information include no more than 5% of houses with a greater than 5% lead risk, and a community weighted-average risk below 5%. Environmental (primarily soil) and blood lead data from a residential community near a smelter were used to illustrate recent uses of the model. Scheduled remediation in the community will remove soil for approximately 60% of the houses (i.e. those with lead levels > 1000 mg kg^–1). After remediation, the model results indicate a relatively low community risk (0.5–1.9%), although the percentage of houses with lead risks above 5% ranged from 3 to as high as 13%, depending on the variation in blood lead and assuming the model's 7 g dl^–1 increase in blood lead with each 1000 mg kg^–1 increase in soil lead level. A comparison of the limited blood lead data with soil lead levels below 1000 mg kg^–1, however, indicated no apparent relationship. Given these uncertainties, less invasive actions than additional soil removal (e.g. exposure intervention, monitoring conditions, and follow-up as necessary) may be appropriate under the new EPA guidance for lead in soil.     

Lead Contamination of Topsoil and Vegetation in the Vicinity of a Battery Factory in Nigeria

Levels of Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni and Cd were determined in topsoil and vegetation in the vicinity of a factory manufacturing lead- batteries in Ibadan, Nigeria. The samples were collected along five transects in different directions, and varying distances up to 1000m from the factory. Soil lead levels were found to be elevated around the factory, with average levels of about 2000mgkg^–1 close to the fence that declined gradually to about 50mgkg^–1 some 750m away. Soil-lead level around a primary school located about 500m from the factory was as high as 1450mgkg^–1. Lead levels were equally elevated in the vegetation, though average levels in vegetation were slightly lower than in the soil. Cadmium concentrations in soil and vegetation, though low, were more positively correlated with lead levels than any of the other metals are with lead.