Flooding and the Distribution of Selected Metals in Floodplain Sediments in St. Maries, Idaho

The link between sediment contamination and flooding is not well established, since flooding may exacerbate problems by spreading pollutants throughout the floodplain, or alternatively may dilute contaminants in source areas. To determine the substance of such relationships, the pattern of sediment contamination was examined in a small Idaho town following flooding in 1996. Four heavy metals were tested, nickel, chromium, zinc and copper, in 97 soil samples obtained from sites across the floodplain of the St. Joe River. Flood history and land-uses at each sample site were noted. Results showed that contamination levels generally were not high, with flood areas having lower concentrations than non-flood areas. A stronger relationship could be argued for land-use, with higher concentrations of contamination associated with some industrial sites. High levels of contamination were also found in several samples taken from recreational areas. Further research looking at the potential sources of contamination in relation to characteristics of the flood hydrology would seem pertinent.     

Transport and redistribution of Chernobyl fallout radionuclides by fluvial processes: Some preliminary evidence

Several measurements of¹³⁷Cs concentrations in suspended sediment transported by the River Severn during the post-Chernobyl period and in recent channel and floodplain deposits along the river emphasise the potential significance of fluvial processes in the transport and concentration of fallout radionuclides.     

Speciation of Heavy Metals in Floodplain and Flood Sediments: a Reconnaissance Survey of the Aire Valley, West Yorkshire, Great Britain

A five-step sequential extraction technique was used to determine the chemical association of heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd), with major sedimentary phases (exchangeable, surface oxide and carbonate, Fe and Mn oxides, organic and residual metal ions), in samples from floodplain and recent flood sediments of the River Aire, West Yorkshire. Analysis indicates that metals Pb and Zn are primarily associated with the Fe and Mn oxides, Cu with the organic fraction and Cd with exchangeable and surface oxide and carbonate metal ions. Knowledge of the chemical speciation of heavy metals in river sediment, despite the procedure's inherent limitations, facilitates an understanding of their bioavailability, storage and remobilisation in floodplain and river channel environments.     

Geomorphological controls of Fraxinus excelsior growth and regeneration in floodplain forests

Geomorphological changes can alter river hydrology and thus influence floodplain forest growth and regeneration. In this paper we quantify the effect of changes in channel elevation at the scale of four decades on hydrological conditions, overbank sediment deposits, water availability, and their impacts on common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) growth and recruitment in floodplain forests of the Ain River, France. Ash is a drought-sensitive species, and its regeneration is influenced by flood disturbance. We compared ash growth between 20 sample plots located in two contrasting geomorphological contexts using dendrochronological measurements: 11 along reaches degrading over the last 80 years and nine along stable or slightly aggrading reaches. In each context, half of the plots were located near the channel, and the remainder were within the floodplain. Ash regeneration was also quantified in each plot. This work showed that sites which undergo channel degradation are associated with less frequent overbank flows. Whereas there is no trend in either the climatic or stream flow timeseries over the last four decades, the growth patterns of ashes of these sites are significantly different as opposed to plots located in stable or aggraded reaches (bell shaped curve vs. constant increase in tree ring width). The variance through time due to climatic or stream flow control is masked by variance due to topographical changes. Currently plots located in degraded reaches show a lower ash growth (mean of 0.20 cm/yr vs. 0.34 cm/yr over the last decade) and less frequent ash seedling establishment. We have identified a hydrologic threshold for ash growth response when stand elevation values reach 1.5-2 m above the mean annual flow stage. Our results confirm that, at a many-decade timescale, changes in channel elevation must be considered in addition to other hydrological controls of hardwood species growth and recruitment.     

Hydrologic regime and herbivory stabilize an alternative state in Yellowstone National Park.

A decline in the stature and abundance of willows during the 20th century occurred throughout the northern range of Yellowstone National Park, where riparian woody-plant communities are key components in multiple-trophic-level interactions. The potential causes of willow decline include climate change, increased elk browsing coincident with the loss of an apex predator, the gray wolf, and an absence of habitat engineering by beavers. The goal of this study was to determine the spatial and temporal patterns of willow establishment through the 20th century and to identify causal processes. Sampled willows established from 1917 to 1999 and contained far fewer young individuals than was predicted from a modeled stable willow population, indicating reduced establishment during recent decades. Two hydrologically distinct willow establishment environments were identified: fine-grained beaver pond sediments and coarse-grained alluvium. Willows established on beaver pond sediment earlier in time, higher on floodplain surfaces, and farther from the current stream channel than did willows on alluvial sediment. Significant linear declines from the 1940s to the 1990s in alluvial willow establishment elevation and lateral distance from the stream channel resulted in a much reduced area of alluvial willow establishment. Willow establishment was not well correlated with climate-driven hydrologic variables, but the trends were consistent with the effects of stream channel incision initiated in ca. 1950, 20-30 years after beaver dam abandonment. Radiocarbon dates and floodplain stratigraphy indicate that stream incision of the present magnitude may be unprecedented in the past two millennia. We propose that hydrologic changes, stemming from competitive exclusion of beaver by elk overbrowsing, caused the landscape to transition from a historical beaver-pond and willow-mosaic state to its current alternative stable state where active beaver dams and many willow stands are absent. Because of hydrologic changes in streams, a rapid return to the historical state may not occur by reduction of elk browsing alone. Management intervention to restore the historical hydrologic regime may be necessary to recover willows and beavers across the landscape.     

Climate, hydrologic disturbance, and succession: drivers of floodplain pattern

Floodplains are among the world's most threatened ecosystems due to the pervasiveness of dams, levee systems, and other modifications to rivers. Few unaltered floodplains remain where we may examine their dynamics over decadal time scales. Our study provides a detailed examination of landscape change over a 60-year period (1945-2004) on the Nyack floodplain of the Middle Fork of the Flathead River, a free-flowing, gravel-bed river in northwest Montana, USA. We used historical aerial photographs and airborne and satellite imagery to delineate habitats (i.e., mature forest, regenerative forest, water, cobble) within the floodplain. We related changes in the distribution and size of these habitats to hydrologic disturbance and regional climate. Results show a relationship between changes in floodplain habitats and annual flood magnitude, as well as between hydrology and the cooling and warming phases of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). Large magnitude floods and greater frequency of moderate floods were associated with the cooling phases of the PDO, resulting in a floodplain environment dominated by extensive restructuring and regeneration of floodplain habitats. Conversely, warming phases of the PDO corresponded with decreases in magnitude, duration, and frequency of critical flows, creating a floodplain environment dominated by late successional vegetation and low levels of physical restructuring. Over the 60-year time series, habitat change was widespread throughout the floodplain, though the relative abundances of the habitats did not change greatly. We conclude that the long- and short-term interactions of climate, floods, and plant succession produce a shifting habitat mosaic that is a fundamental attribute of natural floodplain ecosystems.     

锡林河河漫滩湿地植物群落特征及物种多样性分析

内蒙古高原草原区湿地具有不同于典型湿地的特征,同时还兼具草原的一些特征,在保持生物多样性和珍惜物种资源方面具有不可替代的重要作用.通过样方调查,以重要值为数量特征,采用指示种分析法和多样性指数测定,对内蒙古高原典型内陆河流——锡林河中游河漫滩湿地植被群落特征及物种多样性进行了系统分析和研究.结果表明:(1)锡林河中游河漫滩湿地植被依微地形由高河漫滩向低河漫滩可分为芦苇+羊草,黄花苜蓿+无茫雀麦,灰脉苔草+早熟禾,水甜茅群落,小糠草+蒙古扁穗草等5个群落,以禾本科、菊科、豆科三大草本为主,建群种有别于典型湿地和典型草原群落.(2)植物水分生态类型以湿生、中生为主且无水生类型,具有典型湿地和草原的双重特征;(3)湿地植物群落物种多样性、均匀性和丰富度表现出相似的变化趋势,多样性和丰富度较草甸草原低但高于典型草原;(4)锡林河河漫滩湿地植物群落是典型河流湿地和典型草原之间的过渡类型.表6,参28.     

Integrated modeling of flood flows and tidal hydrodynamics over a coastal floodplain

The interactions of physical processes between estuaries and upstream river floodplains are of great importance to the fish habitats and ecosystems in coastal regions. Traditionally, a hydraulic analysis of floodplains has used one- or two-dimensional models. While this approach may be sufficient for planning the engineering design for flood protection, it is inadequate when floodwaters inundate the floodplain in a complex manner. Similarly, typical estuarine and coastal modeling studies do not consider the effect of upstream river floodplains because of the technical challenge of modeling wetting and drying processes in floodplains and higher bottom elevations in the upstream river domain. While various multi-scale model frameworks have been proposed for modeling the coastal oceans, estuaries, and rivers with a combination of different models, this paper presents a modeling approach for simulating the hydrodynamics in the estuary and river floodplains, which provides a smooth transition between the two regimes using an unstructured-grid, coastal ocean model. This approach was applied to the Skagit River estuary and its upstream river floodplain of Puget Sound along the northwest coast of North America. The model was calibrated with observed data for water levels and velocities under low-flow and high-flood conditions. This study successfully demonstrated that a three-dimensional estuarine and coastal ocean model with an unstructured-grid framework and wetting-drying capability can be extended much further upstream to simulate the inundation processes and the dynamic interactions between the estuarine and river floodplain regimes.     

黄渤海表层沉积物中正构烷烃和甾醇的分布及来源研究

在黄海、渤海湾和莱州湾采集64个表层沉积物样品,分析正构烷烃(C15～C33)和甾醇(菜子甾醇、菜油甾醇、谷甾醇和豆甾醇)的质量分数和分子组合特征,探讨其来源,比较物质来源的空间差异。结果表明:(1)黄海表层沉积物中类脂生物标志物主要呈现陆源和海源共同影响的特征,其中北黄海以陆源输入为主,高碳数正构烷烃(>C24)具有明显的奇碳优势,陆源高等植物的贡献较大;南黄海陆源输入与海洋自身贡献相当;渤海湾与莱州湾接受来自河流的大量陆源物质;(2)来源于陆源高等植物的甾醇(包括菜油甾醇、谷甾醇和豆甾醇)在黄海表层沉积物中的质量分数远小于渤海湾和莱州湾,但指示硅藻来源的菜子甾醇在整个研究区域均具有较高的质量分数。     

The role of stochasticity and priority effects in floodplain restoration.

This paper is a test of two widely held assumptions in the practice of riparian restoration: (1) if physical processes are restored, plant communities will naturally reassemble themselves, and (2) restored communities will resemble reference sites. Seasonal flooding was restored to two interconnected floodplains in the Central Valley of California (USA), and plant community establishment was studied for six years at 300 permanent vegetation plots. If these two assumptions are valid, then the two floodplains should end up with similar plant assemblages, and they should both have followed a similar trajectory. Then, once the relevant physical processes are restored, (1) plots with similar environmental conditions should have increasingly similar species compositions, (2) plant communities should become more stable and cohesive, (3) both species distributions and plant communities should respond to changes in environmental conditions, (4) plot diversity should decrease, and (5) perennial species should replace annuals. The plots were classified into communities using TWINSPAN, and these communities differed significantly with respect to the main environmental gradient (inundation). Bray-Curtis similarities were calculated for each pair of plots. Patterns in similarity were used to test the strength of communities and the relative importance of proximity and inundation. On the northern floodplain, there was a trend of increasing similarity for plots with similar environmental conditions over the course of the study; plant communities became more stable and clearly responded to changes in environmental conditions. Plot diversity decreased, and the proportion of perennial species increased. On the southern floodplain, however, plots with similar environmental conditions became less similar, while plots that were close together became more similar; plant communities did not become more stable though they did shift in response to changes in environmental conditions. Taken together, this evidence suggests that assembly of communities is more stochastic than deterministic.     

Metal contamination of active stream sediments in upper Weardale,northern Pennine Orefield,UK

In the Upper Weardale area the headwaters of the River Wear bisect the Northern Pennine Orefield, where Pb-Zn-F-Ba vein-type mineralisation has been exploited since the Roman Conquest. The area contains evidence of open pit, underground and hydraulic mining of base metal ores, associated mineral processing and smelting, exploitation of ironstones during the industrial revolution, recent extraction of fluorite and active quarrying. The aim of this study was to determine the extent of modern sediment contamination arising from these past activities. Samples of active stream sediments were collected from all major drainage channels at 1 km intervals. The sediments were analysed for Pb, Zn, Ba, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Cr, As, Sb, Ag and compared to data from earlier regional geochemical surveys of low order drainage samples using ArcView software. The significance of contamination levels was assessed using the Ontario aquatic sediment quality guidelines. Our results indicate widespread contamination of some major drainages by Pb, Mn, Zn and As at concentration levels anticipated to significantly affect use of the sediments by benthic organisms. Furthermore, Pb contamination shows persistence in stream sediments downstream towards agricultural areas of the floodplain and drinking water abstraction points, above which interaction with colliery mine water discharges may occur.     

Processesof Tamarix invasion and floodplain development along the lower Green River, Utah.

Significant ecological, hydrologic, and geomorphic changes have occurred during the 20th century along many large floodplain rivers in the American Southwest. Native Populus forests have declined, while the exotic Eurasian shrub, Tamarix, has proliferated and now dominates most floodplain ecosystems. Photographs from late 19th and early 20th centuries illustrate wide river channels with largely bare in-channel landforms and shrubby higher channel margin floodplains. However, by the mid-20th century, floodplains supporting dense Tamarix stands had expanded, and river channels had narrowed. Along the lower Green River in eastern Utah, the causal mechanism of channel and floodplain changes remains ambiguous due to the confounding effects of climatically driven reductions in flood magnitude, river regulation by Flaming Gorge Dam, and Tamarix invasion. This study addressed whether Tamarix establishment and spread followed climate- or dam-induced reductions in annual peak flows or whether Tamarix was potentially a driver of floodplain changes. We aged 235 Tamarix and 57 Populus individuals, determined the hydrologic and geomorphic processes that controlled recruitment, identified the spatial relationships of germination sites within floodplain stratigraphic transects, and mapped woody riparian vegetation cohorts along three segments of the lower Green River. The oldest Tamarix established along several sampling reaches in 1938, and 1.50-2.25 m of alluvium has accreted above their germination surfaces. Nearly 90% of the Tamarix and Populus samples established during flood years that exceeded the 2.5-year recurrence interval. Recruitment was most common when large floods were followed by years with smaller peak flows. The majority of Tamarix establishment and Green River channel narrowing occurred long before river regulation by Flaming Gorge Dam. Tamarix initially colonized bare instream sand deposits (e.g., islands and bars), and most channel and floodplain changes followed the establishment of Tamarix. Our results suggest that Tamarix recruitment was triggered by large annual floods that were followed by years with lower peak flows, not by periods of low flow alone. Tamarix appears to have actively invaded floodplains, while Populus colonization has been limited. Thus, Tamarix invasion may have greatly influenced floodplain development and riparian vegetation composition along the lower Green River since the early 20th century.     

Identification of sources,characteristics and photochemical transformations of dissolved organic matter with EEM-PARAFAC in the Wei River of China

• The source of DOM in surface water and sediment is inconsistent. • The DOC content changes differently in surface water and sediment. • The content of DOC in the surface water is lower than that in the sediment. • The DOM in the surface water had higher photodegradation potentials than sediment. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in rivers is a critical regulator of the cycling and toxicity of pollutants and the behavior of DOM is a key indicator for the health of the environment. We investigated the sources and characteristics of DOM in surface water and sediment samples of the Wei River, China. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration and ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (UV₂₅₄) increased in the surface water and were decreased in the sediment downstream, indicating that the source of DOM in the water differed from the sediment. Parallel factor (PARAFAC) analysis of the excitation-emission matrices (EEM) revealed the presence of terrestrial humus-like, microbial humus-like and tryptophan-like proteins in the surface water, whereas the sediment contained UVA humic-like, UVC humic-like and fulvic-like in the sediment. The DOM in the surface water and sediment were mainly derived from microbial metabolic activity and the surrounding soil. Surface water DOM displayed greater photodegradation potential than sediment DOM. PARAFAC analysis indicated that the terrestrial humic-like substance in the water and the fulvic-like component in the sediment decomposed more rapidly. These data describe the characteristics of DOM in the Wei River and are crucial to understanding the fluctuations in environmental patterns.     

Modelling the impacts of land-use and drainage density on the water balance of a lowland–floodplain landscape in northeast Germany

This study presents the modelling approach and impact assessment of different strategies for managing wetland water resources and groundwater dynamics of landscapes which are characterised by the hydrological interactions of floodplains and the adjacent lowlands. The assessment of such impacts is based on the analysis of simulation results of complex scenarios of land-use changes and changes of the density of the drainage-network. The method has been applied to the 198 km² Lower Havel River catchment as a typical example of a lowland–floodplain landscape. The model used consists of a coupled soil water and groundwater model, where the latter one is additionally coupled to the surface channel network. Thus, the hydrological processes of the variable saturated soil zone as well as lateral groundwater flow and the interactions between surface water and groundwater are simulated in an integrated manner. The model was validated for several years of significantly different meteorological conditions. The comparison of lateral and vertical water balance components showed the dominance of lateral flow processes and the importance of the interactions between surface water and groundwater for the overall water balance and the hydrological state of that type of landscape.The simulation of land-use change scenarios showed only minor effects of land-use change on the water balance and groundwater recharge. Changes of groundwater recharge were particularly small within the wetland areas being part of the floodplain where interactions between surface water and groundwater are most pronounced. Alterations in vertical groundwater recharge were counter-balanced by the lateral interaction between groundwater and surface water. More significant deviations in groundwater recharge and storage were observed in the more peripheral areas towards the catchment boundaries which are characterised by greater groundwater distance from the surface and less intense of ground water–surface water interactions.However, the simulation results assuming a coarsening of the drainage network density showed the importance of drainage structure and geometry for the water balance: The removal of the artificial draining ditches in the floodplain would result in significant alterations of total groundwater recharge, i.e., less recharge from winter to early summer and an increase of groundwater recharge during summer and autumn. Furthermore the different effects of groundwater recharge alterations on the dynamics of groundwater stages within the wetland areas close to the floodplains compared to the more peripheral areas could be quantified. Finally, it will be discussed that a well-adjusted co-ordination of different management measures is required to reach a sustainable water resources management of such lowland–floodplain landscapes.     

Denitrification mitigates N flux through the stream-floodplain complex of a desert city

The Indian Bend Wash (IBW) flood-control project relies on a greenbelt to carry floods through Scottsdale, Arizona, USA. The greenbelt is characterized by a chain of shallow artificial lakes in a larger floodplain of irrigated turf, which has been protected from encroaching urban development. As such, this urban stream-floodplain complex can be divided into three subsystems: artificial lakes, channelized stream segments, and floodplain. We conducted experiments to evaluate which, if any, of these subsystems were important sites of denitrification, and to explore factors controlling denitrification rates. Denitrification enzyme activity (DEA) bioassays were conducted on sediments from eight lake and six stream segments as well as soil samples from eight floodplain transects. Mass-specific potential denitrification rates were significantly higher in lakes than in streams or floodplains. Nutrient limitation bioassays revealed that nitrate (NO3-) limited denitrification in lake sediments, a surprising finding given that NO3(-)-rich groundwater additions frequently raised lake NO3(-) concentration above 1 mg N/L. Experiments on intact lake cores suggested that denitrification was limited by the rate NO3(-) diffused into sediments, rather than its availability in overlying water. Floodplain denitrification was limited by water content, not NO3(-) or C, and irrigation of soils stimulated denitrification. We constructed a N budget for the IBW stream-floodplain complex based on our experimental results. We found that both lakes and floodplains removed large quantities of N, with denitrification removing 261 and 133 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) from lake sediments and floodplain soils, respectively, indicating that lakes are hotspots for denitrification. Nevertheless, because floodplain area was >4.5 times that of lakes, floodplain soils removed nearly 2.5 times as much N as lake sediments. Given the desert's low annual precipitation, a finding that floodplain soils are active sites of denitrification might seem implausible; however, irrigation is common in urban landscapes, and it elevated annual denitrification in IBW. Based on our results, we conclude that construction of artificial lakes created hotspots while application of irrigation water created hot moments for denitrification in the stream-floodplain complex, demonstrating that management decisions can improve the ability of urban streams to provide critical ecosystem services like N retention.     

Pesticide in the Mississippi River floodplain and its possible linkage to colon cancer risk in the US

Result of this study shows that elevated colorectal cancer risk in Mississippi River floodplain of the United States is likely linked to historically high pesticide application. Mississippi River basin produces about 80% of major US crops and has about two-thirds of US pesticides used for agriculture. Historically, heavy pesticide application and agricultural irrigation were reported to result in high pesticide residues in surface water, fish and wells of Mississippi embayment. Risk ratio of colorectal cancer incidence in 86 counties of Mississippi River floodplain was about 29% higher than that of other counties in the 48 contiguous states. Risk ratio of colon cancer mortality in 63 counties of Mississippi embayment was 33% higher than that of other counties in the 48 states between 1999 and 2016. Risk ratios of colorectal cancer incidence and colon cancer mortality in Mississippi River floodplain are higher after smoking and diabetes factors were filtered off. Previous studies have linked exposure to pesticide with type-II diabetes and the latter was linked to increasing colon cancer risk by about 27%. Result here suggests that pesticide may be an independent risk factor directly associated with elevated colon cancer risk in Mississippi River floodplain.     

The effect of temperature on leaching and subsequent decomposition of dissolved carbon from inundated floodplain litter: implications for the generation of hypoxic blackwater in lowland floodplain rivers

Dissolved organic carbon export from floodplain litter during flood events is an important energy subsidy for lowland rivers. Temperature affects both the release and decomposition of dissolved organic carbon from floodplain plant litter. Unseasonally warm flood conditions have resulted in the release and consumption of carbon at a rate so rapid that water column oxygen has been depleted, causing the death of aquatic organisms upon exposure to this ‘hypoxic blackwater’. To date, there has not been a systematic investigation of the role of temperature on hypoxic blackwater dynamics. In a series of laboratory experiments, we investigated the temperature dependence of both leaching and decomposition of carbon from a common floodplain litter component in south-eastern Australia – the leaves of the river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The leaching rate increased with temperature and approximated Arrhenius kinetics. Additionally, the solubility of the leaf carbon increased substantially at temperatures above ～25°C. The rate of organic carbon respiration also increased with temperature, and the relationship with temperature was approximately linear. These data can be used to improve models for the prediction of hypoxic blackwater risk.     

腐殖质对BDE209、Pb和Cd在水/沉积物界面吸附行为的影响

水/沉积物界面是有机和无机污染物的物理、化学等过程的重要载体和场所。为了探究溴代阻燃剂与重金属在水/沉积物体系的分布规律,以电子垃圾拆解地水体中常见的溴代阻燃剂十溴联苯醚(BDE209)和重金属Pb、Cd为目标污染物,考察了腐殖质对BDE209、Pb和Cd在水/沉积物界面吸附行为的影响。红外光谱分析表明沉积物腐殖质活性基团包括醇、酚和羧基类等官能团;1H核磁共振分析显示沉积物腐殖质主要由碳水化合物与脂肪族类化合物组成。吸附试验结果表明,水体中腐殖质能够促进沉积物表面BDE209、Pb和Cd的释放,BDE209在水/沉积物体系的吸附行为主要受水溶性腐殖质的影响,而对Pb、Cd而言,负载于沉积物表面的碱溶性腐殖质比水溶性腐殖质对其分配行为的作用更显著。此外,沉积物组分对BDE209在水/沉积物体系的分配行为无显著影响;粘土组分对Pb、Cd的富集能力高于砂粒,并且对Pb的富集能力比Cd更为突出。     

Diverging response patterns of terrestrial and aquatic species to hydromorphological restoration

Although experiences with ecological restoration continue to accumulate, the effectiveness of restoration for biota remains debated. We complemented a traditional taxonomic analysis approach with information on 56 species traits to uncover the responses of 3 aquatic (fish, macroinvertebrates, macrophytes) and 2 terrestrial (carabid beetles, floodplain vegetation) biotic groups to 43 hydromorphological river restoration projects in Germany. All taxonomic groups responded positively to restoration, as shown by increased taxonomic richness (10–164%) and trait diversity (habitat, dispersal and mobility, size, form, life history, and feeding groups) (15–120%). Responses, however, were stronger for terrestrial than aquatic biota, and, contrary to our expectation, taxonomic responses were stronger than those of traits. Nevertheless, trait analysis provided mechanistic insights into the drivers of community change following restoration. Trait analysis for terrestrial biota indicated restoration success was likely enhanced by lateral connectivity and reestablishment of dynamic processes in the floodplain. The weaker response of aquatic biota suggests recovery was hindered by the persistence of stressors in the aquatic environment, such as degraded water quality, dispersal constraints, and insufficient hydromorphological change. Therefore, river restoration requires combined local- and regional-scale approaches to maximize the response of both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Due to the contrasting responses of aquatic and terrestrial biota, the planning and assessment of river restoration outcomes should consider effects on both components of riverine landscapes.     

Effects of restoration and reflooding on soil denitrification in a leveed Midwestern floodplain.

River floodplains have the potential to remove nitrate from water through denitrification, the anaerobic microbial conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas. An important factor in this process is the interaction of river water with floodplain soil; however, many rivers have been disconnected from their historic floodplains by levees. To test the effect of reflooding a degraded floodplain on nitrate removal, we studied changes in soil denitrification rates on the Baraboo River floodplain in Wisconsin, USA, as it underwent restoration. Prior to this study, the site had been leveed, drained, and farmed for more than 50 years. In late fall 2002, the field drainage system was removed, and a gate structure was installed to allow controlled flooding of this site with river water. Soil moisture was extremely variable among zones and months and reflected local weather. Soil organic matter was stable over the study period with differences occurring along the elevation gradient. High soil nitrate concentrations occurred in dry, relatively organic-poor soil samples and, conversely, all samples with high moisture soils characterized by low nitrate. We measured denitrification in static cores and potential denitrification in bulk samples amended with carbon and nitrogen, one year before and two years following the manipulation. Denitrification rates showed high temporal and spatial variability. Static core rates of individual sites ranged widely (from 0.00 to 16.7 microg N2O-N x [kg soil](-1) x h(-1), mean +/- SD = 1.10 +/- 3.02), and denitrification enzyme activity (DEA) rates were similar with a slightly higher mean (from 0.00 to 15.0 microg N2O-N x [kg soil](-1) x h(-1), 1.41 +/- 1.98). Denitrification was not well-correlated with soil nitrate, organic matter content, or moisture levels, the three parameters typically thought to control denitrification. Static core denitrification rates were not significantly different across years, and DEA rates decreased slightly the second year after restoration. These results demonstrate that restored agricultural soil has the potential for denitrification, but that floodplain restoration did not immediately improve this potential. Future floodplain restorations should be designed to test alternative methods of increasing denitrification.