土地资源永续利用的生态经济对策

土地资源是人类赖以生存的最基本的自然资源,土地资源的永续利用是实现社会、经济和生态全面可持续发展的基础。本文在分析土地资源利用特点,土地资源永续利用的内涵、原则与指南的基础上,提出了实现土地资源永续利用的一系列生态经济对策。     

Structural change and sustainable development

In this paper, we show that the commonly observed decline in primary (natural resource using) sector output and employment shares, often termed structural change, can be explained as an endogenous response to the presence of nature's constraint. Structural change takes place even if consumer preferences are homothetic, and technological progress does not discriminate against the primary sector. Under certain conditions, structural change allows an open economy to grow with natural resource sustainability. Sustained and environmentally sustainable economic growth is possible even if the natural resource is exploited under open access. Well-defined property rights are neither necessary, nor sufficient for sustainable growth. We show that there is no unique relationship between natural resource endowment and the rate of economic growth over the long run. Resource-rich economies may grow faster or slower than resource-poor ones.     

Science, Power, and System Dynamics: the Political Economy of Conservation Biology

Abstract: Frustration with the lack of action on conservation issues by governments has sparked debate around the policy role of conservation biologists. We analyzed the political economy of conservation biology, that is, of the dynamics of the political and economic structures within which conservation biology operates, and we suggest more productive means for conservation biologists to achieve conservation goals. Within the modern state, conservation goals are marginalized because the growth needs of industrial capital have the highest priority. Environmental advocacy within this system largely addresses only proximate concerns and has limited success. Science is a product of modern society, but scientists now need to foster novel institutional arrangements in which humans can function within the limits of natural systems. This entails a larger recognition of the inherent contradictions residing within current institutions that themselves depend on unsustainably high resource flows. As one critical counterbalance to these institutions, we discuss community-based management and research as primary institutions through which sustainable use of natural resources might be achieved.     

A framework for evaluating and designing citizen science programs for natural resources monitoring

We present a framework of resource characteristics critical to the design and assessment of citizen science programs that monitor natural resources. To develop the framework we reviewed 52 citizen science programs that monitored a wide range of resources and provided insights into what resource characteristics are most conducive to developing citizen science programs and how resource characteristics may constrain the use or growth of these programs. We focused on 4 types of resource characteristics: biophysical and geographical, management and monitoring, public awareness and knowledge, and social and cultural characteristics. We applied the framework to 2 programs, the Tucson (U.S.A.) Bird Count and the Maui (U.S.A.) Great Whale Count. We found that resource characteristics such as accessibility, diverse institutional involvement in resource management, and social or cultural importance of the resource affected program endurance and success. However, the relative influence of each characteristic was in turn affected by goals of the citizen science programs. Although the goals of public engagement and education sometimes complimented the goal of collecting reliable data, in many cases trade‐offs must be made between these 2 goals. Program goals and priorities ultimately dictate the design of citizen science programs, but for a program to endure and successfully meet its goals, program managers must consider the diverse ways that the nature of the resource being monitored influences public participation in monitoring.     

Challenges for a sustainable resource use: Uncertainty,trade, and climate policies

We integrate new challenges to thinking about resource markets and sustainable resource use policies in a general framework. The challenges, emerging from six papers that JEEM publishes in a special issue, are (i) demand uncertainty and stockpiling, (ii) international trade and resource dependence, (iii) deforestation, and (iv) intertemporal effects of climate change policies (“Green Paradox”). We discuss new insights and results on these issues by fitting them into the Hotelling model of non-renewable resource depletion.     

Challenges for a sustainable resource use: Uncertainty,trade, and climate policies

We integrate new challenges to thinking about resource markets and sustainable resource use policies in a general framework. The challenges, emerging from six papers that JEEM publishes in a special issue, are (i) demand uncertainty and stockpiling, (ii) international trade and resource dependence, (iii) deforestation, and (iv) intertemporal effects of climate change policies (“Green Paradox”). We discuss new insights and results on these issues by fitting them into the Hotelling model of non-renewable resource depletion.     

Some for all,forever — sustainable development and management of water resources

SUMMARY

The notion of sustainable development in the context of water resources is discussed. Facing the increasing pressures — population growth with consequences for settlements and production of food and fibre, and human aspirations to better living standards — the business-as-usual approach to water development and management cannot he globally sustainable. The need for curbing water demands and for ‘doing more with less’ are gaining growing recognition in our increasingly thirsty planet. An integrated approach to freshwater resources is needed, based on the perception of water as a natural resource, part of the ecosystem, and an economic and social good. It is discussed how hydrological extremes jeopardize sustainable development. Sustainability-related properties of drought and flood preparedness and mitigation measures are reviewed. Even if the term ‘sustainable development’ has been typically used in a qualitative sense, in order to compare how different options (e.g. flood protection alternatives) fare with regard to sustainable development, one needs at least rough quantitative measures. A sample of relevant indices is reviewed. It is advocated that hydrological observations should be recognized as an essential component of sustainable development and management of water resources.     

Natural resource use,income and dependence among San and Mier communities bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park,southern Kalahari,South Africa

Contemporary strategies for natural resource management espouse the need to integrate local people and their livelihood needs into biodiversity conservation projects to achieve sustainable ‘development and ecological integrity’. Valuation of natural resource use provides empirical evidence and conceptual arguments of local people's dependence on these resources, which could be factored into biodiversity conservation planning. Based on household surveys and key informant interviews, this study looked at the contribution of dryland natural resources to the livelihoods of two culturally different but neighbouring communities, the San and Mier, bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. Overall, natural resources represented an important livelihood source for the San, contributing on an average 32% of total annual income, compared to 9% for the Mier. Fuelwood was the predominant contributor to natural resource incomes in both cases. Income quintile analysis showed that dependence on natural resources decreased moving to higher income groups for Mier households, but increased with income for San households. Well-off households still derived higher total income from natural resources; often from the more lucrative sources of such income, notably from fuelwood sales. Contextual factors such as culture and social institutions, among others, influenced access to, and consequently the use of, particular resources and the value of these to households. Sustainable natural resource management interventions should consider these disparities in patterns of natural resource dependence among different income groups.     

Capitalizing property rights insecurity in natural resource assets

Property rights are commonly touted as a solution to common pool resource problems. In practice, however, the security of property rights over natural resources varies substantially; this may affect returns to ownership and asset values. We use an analytical model to examine the effects of insecure property rights to natural resources on the market value of assets. We then use a unique dataset of fisheries from three countries to examine empirically how differences in property rights affect market outcomes. We find significant asset market capitalization of insecurity arising from (1) ownership disputes, (2) illegal extraction from resource stocks, and (3) the possibility of government revocation of rights.     

小城镇复合生态系统能值整合研究

运用能值理论和方法,以湖北省小城镇(大悟县)为案例,对其复合生态系统进行研究,以了解系统的能流结构和特点,为系统持续发展提供科学指导。研究结果表明,该系统能值自给率68.42%,对外界依赖性低,经济安全性高;但人均能值用量和能值密度较低,系统经济不发达。不可更新资源占能值总用量63.51%,属于资源消耗型的经济模式,环境压力较大,不利于区域可持续发展,今后应增加可更新资源的利用,提高不可更新资源的利用效率,增加科技投入,促进该区域可持续发展。     

On the sustainability of common property resources

We provide a model where a common property resource is managed by two types of agents, cooperators and non-cooperators, who adjust their extraction strategies in response to persistent differential payoffs. In our model, the social approval of cooperators works as a reward mechanism which, as we show, favors both the pervasiveness of cooperative behavior and the sustainable management of natural resources. Specifically, we show that in the presence of such a reward mechanism a stable equilibrium can be reached with both strategies being practiced simultaneously and a decentralized and sustainable management of common property resources is possible.     

Rural Development and Sustainable Wildlife Use in Peru

Abstract: Tropical conservation has seen a convergence between conservation projects and rural development, with both approaches promoting participation of local people in sustainable resource use. But there is a discord between rural development and sustainable use of wildlife. Implementing more sustainable use of wildlife usually means decreased economic benefits for rural people, especially over the short term. In contrast, rural-development projects are often mandated to generate income for rural people over the short term. We examined this dilemma through an integrated economic and harvest analysis of the costs associated with converting unsustainable hunting to more sustainable hunting in the Peruvian Amazon. Our analysis suggests that a change in hunting practice would have significant economic costs for rural people and would result in a 36% decrease in the economic benefits they derive from wildlife hunting. In contrast, converting unsustainable hunting to more sustainable hunting would have little effect on meat markets in the urban center of Iquitos, Peru, with markets losing only 3.6% of their economic value. There would be no economic costs for the international pelt trade. If rural-development projects absorb the short-term economic costs, they can help people convert unsustainable wildlife use to more sustainable use and assist rural people in realizing the long-term benefits of more sustainable hunting. But many rural-development projects would need to change their mandate for short-term income generation to incorporate the realities of sustainability.     

Disarming the population bomb

This paper argues for a renewed international focus on managed population reduction as a key enabler of sustainable development. The paper presents development data that demonstrate why population reduction should be elevated to share top priority with poverty alleviation, as the two over-arching goals of international development strategy. The critical analysis put forth in this paper argues that the current ‘unsustainable’ approach to sustainable development stems from (1) ‘empty world’ economic growth theory applied to a ‘full world’, which is (2) supported and driven by socioeconomic incentives to expand population, (3) justified through flawed interpretation of demographic transition theory, (4) bolstered by the exaggerated efficacy of environmental economic theory applied in a resource-constrained world, (5) insulated from challenge by limitations of scientific knowledge and (6) perpetuated by herd behavior. This paper concludes that failure to reduce global population will inhibit attainment of poverty alleviation and worsen environmental degradation.     

Social‐Psychological Principles of Community‐Based Conservation and Conservancy Motivation: Attaining Goals within an Autonomy‐Supportive Environment

Abstract: Community‐based natural resource conservation programs in developing nations face many implementation challenges underpinned by social‐psychological mechanisms. One challenge is garnering local support in an economically and socially sustainable fashion despite economic hardship and historical alienation from local resources. Unfortunately, conservationists' limited understanding of the social‐psychological mechanisms underlying participatory conservation impedes the search for appropriate solutions. We address this issue by revealing key underlying social‐psychological mechanisms of participatory conservation. Different administrative designs create social atmospheres that differentially affect endorsement of conservation goals. Certain forms of endorsement may be less effective motivators and less economically and socially sustainable than others. From a literature review we found that conservation initiatives endorsed primarily for nonautonomous instrumental reasons, such as to avoid economic fines or to secure economic rewards, are less motivating than those endorsed for autonomous reasons, such as for the opportunity for personal expression and growth. We suggest that successful participatory programs promote autonomous endorsement of conservation through an administrative framework of autonomy support—free and open democratic participation in management, substantive recognition and inclusion of local stakeholder identity, and respectful, noncoercive social interaction. This framework of the autonomy‐supportive environment (self‐determination theory) has important implications for future research into program design and incentive‐based conservation and identifies a testable social‐psychological theory of conservancy motivation.     

Resource use conflicts in Usangu Plains,Mbarali District,Tanzania

Conflicts over natural resources such as land, water, and forests are ubiquitous. People everywhere have competed for natural resources to enhance their livelihoods. However, the dimensions, level and intensity of conflict vary greatly from one place to another. This study was conducted in Usangu plains, Mbarali district, Tanzania, to investigate resource use conflicts and their underlying causes. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and household survey using a structured questionnaire were the major tools for data collection. Participant observation and secondary data sources were also used to supplement information. The study revealed the existence of resource use conflicts in the area. About 50% of respondents argued that relationships between the various ethnic groups in Usangu plains were bad. Conflicts were centred on competition for water and land. Crop damage was ranked highest (25% of respondents) as a cause behind many conflicts in the area. The study recommends that the government should redefine land tenure and land rights, enhance crop-livestock linkages and carry out a stakeholder analysis in the Usangu plains.     

论构建我国资源安全保障的法律体系

资源安全是国家安全的重要组成部分,建构资源安全保障的法律体系具有十分重要的意义。文章从我国资源安全保障立法的现状出发,指出我国资源安全保障法律体系的指导思想是可持续发展观和科学的资源安全观,我国资源安全法律保障体系的整体框架应当包括保护自然资源系统的法律法规、合理开发战略性资源的法律法规、适度消费与高效利用资源的法律法规、利用国际市场与规避贸易风险的资源安全的法律法规、协调资源供给利用与净化资源安全管理的法律法规,并且我国资源安全保障具体法律制度应当从上述方面加以构建和完善。此外,构建我国资源安全法律保障具体制度还应当制定资源安全预警制度、资源安全押金制度、采取积极的资源安全激励措施等相关配套法律法规,从而保障我国资源安全保障法律的体系的完整与有效实施。     

Planning and implementing sustainability in higher education institutions: an overview of the difficulties and potentials

Planning in sustainable development is believed to be an important element in allowing higher education institutions to set their goals and to commit themselves towards undertaking concrete actions and measures at all levels in order to implement sustainability. Yet, there is a paucity of research that has looked at the extent to which planning can support institutions of higher education to assess their performances and to determine whether the set aims have been met. This research gap needs to be met to allow a better understanding of how planning can help to promote the integration of the three components of sustainable development – economic development, social development and environmental protection in higher education. This paper explores the challenges for planning the sustainable development in higher education, also outlining the potentials lessons learned that could assist in improving Education for Sustainable Development efforts in Higher Education Institutions. Among its main results are the fact that many universities wish to pursue sustainable development, but their efforts are hindered by lack of institutional support and planning and limited emphasis on approaches, such as problem-based learning. The universities that are engaged in the field have to face many problems, varying from limited resources to lack of trained staff. As a result, integrated approaches to sustainability become difficult to implement. Finally, the paper has identified the fact that many opportunities offered mainstream developments, such as the UN Declaration ‘The World we Want’ or the UN Sustainable Development Goals are not being put to full use.     

Aktuelle Entwicklungen bei Umweltindikatorensystemen

The current monitoring of the status of the environment and natural resources is a substantial basis for the implementation of a sustainable development as a model of the environmental policy in the terms of Agenda 21. For the 90s, in particular by the mandate of Rio 1992, both the international institutions (international level), e.g. the OECD, the United Nation Commission of Sustainable Development and the European Environmental Agency, and the environmental protection authorities of the different countries (national level) e.g. Germany, and of the federal states of Germany (regional level) are developing environmental indicator systems. In the context of the Local Agenda 21, indicators for the ecological, economic, social and institutional categories are set up on a communal level. In the environmental indicator systems different issues, e.g. climate change, ozone layer depletion, water quality and water resources, waste, toxic contamination, biodiversity, landscape protection, soil resources, forest resources, etc., are described. Concepts with driving forces, pressure, state, impact and/or response indicators are applied. The German Council of Environmental Advisors (SRU) requires that the selection and aggregation of indicators must be transparent and comprehensibly documented and that the chosen indicators must be oriented at political targets. The following article gives an overview of relevant actual environmental indicator systems, their concepts and structuring, and points to the further research and developmental requirements within this area.     

Local use of agricultural lands and natural resources as the commons in Gunung Halimun National Park,West Java,Indonesia

The theory of the commons encompasses two interpretations: one based on 'manifest customs', whilst the other relates to 'latent customs'. The former asserts that individuals behave as rational economic units, pursuing their own profit based on economic mechanisms, whilst social restrictions relating to the use of resources within communities act to prevent the total destruction of the natural environment. In contrast, the latter holds that people behave according to the morality or ethics embedded within the society, and that this contributes to sustainable resource management.

A field survey conducted in West Java as part of the present study revealed that a system of communal ownership of lands and resources is widely practiced on land that is strictly private property, including paddy fields, cultivated swiddens, gardens and so forth, facilitated by the distribution of land, lending and borrowing of land and collaborative labour systems. This customary management system is considered a prime example of the commons resource management. Furthermore, communal lands were also seen to play a significant role in the distribution of land and resources amongst community members to supplement daily needs. In addition, these customary land-use systems, as the commons, are considered to contribute towards mitigating the gap between rich and poor.     

茂名小良桉树人工林生态经济效益分析与评价

利用模糊数学的方法,通过对小良的实地调杳和专家走访,挑选了30个对小良桉林生态经济影响较大的因子.建立了评价因子指标体系和五个评价等级,采用二个层次的综合评价模型对小良桉林生态经济效益首次进行了定量的综合评价.评价结果是:现在小良桉林生态经济效益为一般.总体态势是:16%为好,26%为较好,31%为一般.23%为较差,4%为差.综合评价得分为79.85分,介于一般和良好之间,这说明在小良桉树人工林的发展过程中存在许多显性的、潜在的问题,如果还不注意合理利用林地资源,就会使森林资源变为不可更新资源,不可持续利用.因此,科学客观地分析与评价小良桉林产业生态经济效益,为区域可持续发展提供科学依据和发展良策,实现生态和经济的综合调控具有现实意义.