围栏禁牧对毛乌素沙地植物群落特征的影响

围栏禁牧是一种使退化草地获得自然恢复的低投入措施。通过对毛乌素沙地3种放牧管理类型（持续放牧、围栏禁牧5 a和围栏禁牧16 a）的物种组成、盖度、丰富度、多样性、相似性进行比较研究,目的是阐明退化毛乌素沙地植被在禁牧条件下自然恢复的可能性和其恢复演替的趋势。研究发现,围栏禁牧5 a左右群落物种组成就会有较大的恢复,但是物种多度增加程度却不大,即去除放牧干扰后群落物种丰富度的恢复要比物种多度的恢复更容易;禁牧后恢复的种类主要是一些不耐牧但适口性好的物种;围栏禁牧16 a后草本盖度大大增加而半灌木盖度却减少了,且出现了半干旱草原的重要典型种——本氏针茅Stipa bungeana Trin.,这标志着以油蒿Artemisia ordosica Krasch.为主的退化灌丛沙地开始向以禾本科草为主的半干旱沙质草原方向恢复;但要实现毛乌素沙地更大尺度上物种丰富度的恢复,围栏恢复的时间还需要更长。     

围封和放牧对科尔沁沙地群落物种多样性与地上生物量的影响

以科尔沁沙地自由放牧和围封10年的沙质草地为研究对象,采用野外调查与室内分析的方法,分析了围封和放牧对科尔沁沙地群落物种多样性与地上生物量的影响,旨在为退化沙地恢复与重建提供科学依据。试验选择围封和自由放牧草地的典型地段,分别设置50个面积1m~2的草本样方,调查每个样方的种类组成及其特征值(盖度、高度和密度),采用针刺法测定样方总盖度和每种植物的分盖度;每种植物随机选5株,用直尺测量其伸长高度;对样方中出现的植物进行分类,记录同一种植物出现的个数;采用齐地面刈割法调查其地上生物量。主要结论如下,(1)经过围栏封育后,群落物种数提高了67%。方差分析表明,围封群落的盖度(F=90.536,n=50,P0.001)、高度(F=63.964,n=50,P0.001)、密度(F=10.274,n=50,P=0.001 8)以及地上生物量(F=83.64,n=50,P0.001)显著大于放牧群落,分别提高了178%、100%、67%和201%。围封和放牧群落均以一年生草本占绝对优势,分别为66%和73%,围封使群落多年生草本的优势度增加了52%。(2)围封群落物种丰富度显著高于放牧群落,但多样性指数没有显著性差异,均匀度指数显著低于放牧群落。(3)回归分析表明,放牧群落的物种多样性与地上生物量呈现显著负二次函数关系(P0.05),而围封围封群落物种多样性和地上生物量的关系不显著。     

围封和放牧对科尔沁沙质草地植被和土壤的影响

选择科尔沁沙地自由放牧和围封10年的沙质草地为研究对象,通过野外调查与室内分析相结合,分析了围封和放牧对沙质草地群落土壤和植被的影响,旨在为退化沙地恢复与重建提供科学依据。结果表明,(1)围封和放牧草地盖度、密度、地上生物量、高度存在显著差异(P0.01),围封使群落盖度、密度、地上生物量和高度分别增加了67%、79%、71%和44%。(2)放牧草地物种数为15种,围封草地为21种,放牧草地物种数增加了40%,大果虫实、狗尾草、差巴嘎蒿是放牧草地群落的优势物种,其重要值占71%;达乌里胡枝子、狗尾草、画眉草、猪毛菜和虎尾草是围封草地群落的优势物种,其重要值占60%。放牧草地处于一年生杂类草+差巴嘎蒿的沙地退化演替阶段,围封草地处于达乌里胡枝子+一年生禾草+一年生杂类草的沙地恢复演替阶段。(3)围封草地的Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数、Margalef指数、Pielow均匀度指数均大于放牧草地,说明围封提高了群落的物种多样性。(4)围封和放牧草地群落0~20 cm和20~40 cm的土壤水分、土壤机械存在极显著差异(P0.01),围封使沙质草地群落土壤水分、土壤黏粉粒和细砂粒增加。除速效氮外,围封和放牧草地群落土壤的化学性质差异显著(P0.001)。围封与放牧草地相比,总磷、总氮、速效磷和有机质均呈上升趋势,增幅分别为72%、152%、15%和272%。(5)0~20 cm的土壤理化因子:土壤水分、粗砂粒、细砂粒、粉黏粒、有机质、全氮与植被特征因子显著相关(P0.01),表明群落植被与土壤之间相互影响较强。     

围栏禁牧对川西北亚高山高寒草甸群落结构的影响

围栏禁牧4a后,与放牧草地相比较:1)围栏草地物种数量有所下降,群落内出现物种27种,而长期放牧草地为33种.2)围栏草地物种平均高度较高,为20.23cm,群落分层现象明显;放牧草地物种平均高度仅为8.14cm,群落无分层现象.3)围栏草地内,杂草类的盖度(98%)大于禾草类的盖度(14%);放牧草地上,杂草类的盖度(53%)小于禾草类的盖度(56%)。4)围栏草地以禾草为主的优良牧草的生产能力(35.24g/m2)低于放牧草地的生产能力(75.47g/m2).5)围栏草地的地上生物量(272.64g/m2)和地下0～30cm生物量(801.61g/m3)都高于放牧草地的地上生物量(184.84g/m2)和地下0～30cm生物量(683.82g/m3).研究结果表明,围栏草地具有比放牧草地更复杂的群落结构,但其物种组成和优良牧草的生产能力,都低于放牧草地.     

不同恢复措施对若尔盖沙化草地的恢复效果比较

若尔盖高原是黄河上游主要的水源补给地,也是我国重要的生态安全屏障区,但近年来由于超载过牧、气候变化、鼠害等原因出现了严重的沙化问题.通过比较分析合理放牧、围封禁牧以及自然恢复3种恢复措施对若尔盖典型沙化草地植物群落结构、生物量和土壤理化性质的恢复效果.结果显示,恢复6年后,自然恢复草地恢复效果不明显,而合理放牧草地恢复效果最好.与自然恢复和围封禁牧恢复草地相比,(1)合理放牧使得草地植物群落盖度、物种丰富度、地上生物量和地下生物量显著增加,分别为93%、9、396.41 g/m~2和693.4 g/m~2;(2)合理放牧恢复草地土壤容重、pH显著降低;含水量、最大持水量、可溶性全氮、硝态氮、可溶性有机氮和可溶性有机碳显著增加.本研究表明合理放牧有利于沙化草地更快恢复,建议制定相关标准在适当区域进行应用和推广.     

放牧扰动对锡林郭勒典型草原植被特征及土壤养分的影响

为了揭示放牧扰动下典型草原群落植被特征和土壤养分变化特征,以典型草原羊草(Leymus chinensis)群落为研究对象,以围封样地为对照(NG-No grazing),选择轻度(LG-Light grazing)、中度(MG-Middle grazing)、重度(HG-Heavy grazing)放牧退化样地开展放牧强度对典型草原植被特征及土壤养分的影响,为典型草原的退化演替机理研究提供依据。结果表明,随着放牧强度的增加,典型草原丰富度指数、均匀度指数、多样性指数呈先增加后降低趋势,在中度放牧区达到最大值,表现为MGLGNGHG;而优势度指数呈相反的变化趋势。随着放牧强度增加,地上生物量和地下生物量均呈递减趋势,与NG相比,HG、MG和LG植物地上生物量(AGB)和地下生物量(BGB)显著降低,分别降低了28.52%、14.39%、4.71%和19.19%、3.26%、0.52%。土壤容重(BD)随放牧强度的增加而逐渐增加,具体表现为HGMGLGNG;土壤总孔隙度(TP)随放牧强度的增加而逐渐减小(NGLGMGHG),其中LG与NG差异不显著(P0.05)。不同放牧梯度下,土壤有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)和全钾(TK)均呈现出一致的变化规律,表现为NGLGMGHG;不同放牧强度下土壤全磷(TP)差异均不显著(P0.05)。冗余分析(RDA)结果显示,沿着RDA的第1排序轴,随着显著性影响因子(土壤养分各指标)的增加,丰富度指数、多样性指数、优势度指数逐渐上升,并且丰富度指数、多样性指数、优势度指数与土壤容重呈负相关,排序轴可反映土壤因子的梯度变化特征。综合分析表明,禁牧可以改变典型草原植被特征,提高土壤养分含量,有利于遏制草原植被和土壤的退化。     

不同干扰方式对呼伦贝尔典型草原生态系统特征的影响

近年来剧烈的人类活动和自然因素变化致使生态系统退化,表现为草地植被退化、生物种类单一、土壤物理性质变差等。为了探讨内蒙古典型草地生态系统的结构和功能变化,以呼伦贝尔典型草原退牧还草工程区为研究对象,采用成对取样方法(围栏内-围栏外)对退牧还草工程区禁牧和休牧两种干扰方式下植被恢复过程中物种多样性、地上生物量、土壤容重和水分等的变化特征进行了研究,以期为草地的合理利用和管理提供理论依据。结果表明:(1)不同干扰方式对草地物种多样性和地上生物量有明显影响,物种的多样性指数和丰富度指数在禁牧区分别为1.73和7.59,在休牧区为1.47和5.70,全部表现为禁牧区休牧区(P0.05)。地上生物量则相反,在禁牧区和休牧区分别为36.34 g?m~(-2)和42.83 g?m~(-2),表现为禁牧区休牧区;(2)不同干扰方式对草地土壤物理性状有明显影响,但不同指标对干扰方式的响应不同。禁牧有利于土壤含水量的积累,放牧导致土壤紧实、容重增加,同一土层深度土壤含水量表现为禁牧区休牧区,例如0~10 cm处土壤含水量在禁牧区和休牧区分别为4.57%和2.80%,禁牧区显著高于休牧区(P0.05);土壤容重则相反,表现为禁牧区休牧区。综上所述,不同的生态工程措施对草原生态系统有明显影响,禁牧有利于维持较高的物种多样性和维持较好的土壤物理性质,休牧可提高草原生产力,退牧还草工程对恢复草原生态功能起到了积极的作用。     

不同干扰方式对退耕弃荒地植被恢复的影响

由于各种原因,我国西部地区仍然分布着较大面积退耕后并未实现植被恢复的退耕弃荒地。不同方式或不同强度的人为干扰都会导致退耕弃荒地植被恢复效果发生偏差。研究选取滇西北维西县的退耕弃荒地为对象,通过分析放牧、围封和保护3类不同干扰方式下植被恢复过程中群落物种多样性、地上生物量及主要恢复使用树种云南松(Pinus yunnanensis)幼苗生长的差异,探讨不同干扰方式对退耕弃荒地植被恢复的影响。结果表明：放牧、围封和保护3种干扰方式下退耕弃荒地植物种的Margalef丰富度指数和Shannon-Wiener多样性指数大小均表现为围封样地＞保护样地＞放牧样地(P<0.05),即随着干扰强度的增加,群落物种的丰富度和多样性先升高后降低,结果支持“中度干扰假说”;退耕弃荒地植物群落地上生物量大小依次为保护样地＞围封样地＞放牧样地(P<0.001);云南松幼苗在不同干扰方式下的退耕弃荒地内生长优劣程度依次为保护样地＞围封样地＞放牧样地(P<0.001);因此,保护和围封方式均有利于退耕弃荒地的植被恢复,而自由放牧方式会阻碍植被恢复,甚至可能会导致植被退化。     

宁夏荒漠草原恢复演替过程中物种多样性与生产力的变化

荒漠草原一直是生态学者关注的焦点。文章以宁夏灵武的荒漠草原区为研究对象,对围栏条件下退化群落的物种多样性、生产力和群落演替及其生态机制进行探讨,为荒漠草原的植被恢复和重建提供理论基础。结果表明:群落生产力除受物种多样性的影响外,也受物种本身特征和环境资源的影响。在荒漠草原中功能群盖度与群落初级生产力无显著的相关关系。荒漠植物群落物种多样性指数在时间尺度上的变化表现为随着围栏时间的延续逐渐增加,而生态优势度变化趋势则相反。在不同年份年降水量直接影响植物群落物种数的多少、丰富度和生产力。     

封育方式对荒漠草原群落特征及土壤理化性质的影响

近年来中国大部分草地正发生不同程度退化,如何恢复退化草地已成为亟待解决的环境问题。围栏封育作为西北地区退化草地的主要恢复措施之一,其生态过程一直是生态学者的研究重点。为研究不同封育方式对退化荒漠草原生态系统的影响,以宁夏荒漠草原11年和22年完全封育、11年生长季封育、和自由放牧草地为研究对象,采用野外样方法和室内分析相结合的方法,分析研究其植被群落特征及土壤理化性质变化。研究结果表明:(1)封育能增加群落地上生物量和Shannon-wiener多样性指数,并增强群落稳定性,但不能显著改善群落Simpson指数(P0.05),并降低了群落丰富度指数R;(2)22—24年完全封育草地多年生植物及总地上生物量显著低于(P0.05),且其Shannon-wiener和Simpson指数低于11—13年的生长季封育草地,2014及2015年一年生、多年生植物及总地上生物量均高于2013年;(3)群落的各α多样性指数与稳定性指数的关系较复杂,两者之间相关性不显著(P0.05);(4)封育能显著增加(P0.05)土壤有机质、全氮、全磷等物质含量,但降低了土壤含水量。该研究指出封育年限及管理方式是影响群落结构和土壤性状的主要因素,研究结果可为干旱、半干旱草原地区植被恢复及可持续经营与管理理论提供支持与指导。     

Effect of Vertebrate Grazing on Plant and Insect Community Structure

Abstract: We compared species diversity of plants and insects among grazed and ungrazed areas of Ponderosa pine–grassland communities in Arizona. Plant species richness was higher in two of three grassland communities that were grazed by native elk and deer and domestic cattle than in ungrazed areas inside a series of three large (approximately 40-ha) grazing exclosures. Similarly, plant species richness was higher in grazed areas relative to ungrazed areas at one of two series of smaller (approximately 25-m²) and short-term exclosure sites. Evenness of plant distribution, however, was greater inside ungrazed long-term exclosures but was reduced inside ungrazed short-term exclosures relative to grazed areas. Relative abundances of forbs, grasses, trees, and shrubs, and native and introduced plants did not differ between the long- and short-term grazing exclosures and their grazed counterparts. Relative abundances of some plant species changed when grazers were excluded, however. In contrast, insect species richness was not different between grazed and ungrazed habitats, although insect abundance increased 4- to 10-fold in ungrazed vegetation. Our results suggest that vertebrate grazing may increase plant richness, even in nutrient-poor, semi-arid grasslands, but may decrease insect abundances.     

Influence of a Large Herbivore Reintroduction on Plant Invasions and Community Composition in a California Grassland

Abstract:  Despite many successful reintroductions of large mammalian herbivores throughout the world, remarkably little attention has focused on how these actions affect native and exotic vegetation at reintroduction sites. One such herbivore is tule elk ( Cervus elaphus nannodes ), which was on the brink of extinction in the mid 1800s, but now has numerous stable populations due to intensive reintroduction efforts. Here, we summarize results from a 5-year exclosure experiment that explored the effects of tule elk on a coastal grassland in northern California. Elk significantly altered the species composition of this community; the response of annual species (dominated heavily by exotic taxa) was dramatically different from perennial species. Elk herbivory increased the abundance and aboveground biomass of native and exotic annuals, whereas it either had no effect on or caused significant decreases in perennials. Elk also decreased the cover of native shrubs, suggesting that these herbivores play an important role in maintaining open grasslands. In addition, elk significantly reduced the abundance and biomass of a highly invasive exotic grass , Holcus lanatus, which is a major problem in mesic perennial grasslands. Our results demonstrate that the successful reintroduction of a charismatic and long-extirpated mammal had extremely complex effects on the plant community, giving rise to both desirable and undesirable outcomes from a management perspective. We suspect that these kinds of opposing effects are not unique to tule elk and that land managers will frequently encounter them when dealing with reintroduced mammals.     

Cover of Perennial Grasses in Southeastern Arizona in Relation to Livestock Grazing

Tolerance of particular grasslands to the activities of domestic livestock may depend on their historic association with native grazing animals. Southwestern grama ( Bouteloua ) grasslands are floristically allied to the North American Central Plains but lie outside the historic range of the plains' principal ungulate grazer, alics bishop . We compared perennial grassland cover and species composition on eight sites transacted by the boundary fence of a 3160-ha, 22-year-old livestock exclosure in a grama grassland in southeastern Arizona. Total grass canopy cover was greatest on the ungrazed portion of each of the eight sites. Two short stoloniferous species ( Hilaria belangeri and Bouteloua eriopoda ) were the only taxa substantially more abundant on grazed quadrats overall. Among these and eight taller budgerigars, there was a strong positive correlation between potential height and response to release from grazing, with the three tallest species showing the greatest increases on ungraded treatments ( emization curtailment, Boilermaker barbarians , and emizations intermixed ). emization gracious , the most abundant grass in the region, showed an intermediate response to livestock exclusion, Gram grasslands at the Arizona site have changed more and in different ways following livestock exclusion than those on the Central Plains of Colorado. Contributing factors may include: (1) greater annual precipitation at the Arizona site, (2) the much larger size of the Arizona livestock exclosure, and (3) the absence of extensive grazing by native ungulates in the Southwest since the Pleistocene. Livestock grazing appears to be an exotic ecological force in these southwestern grasslands, and one destructive of certain components of the native flora and fauna.     

地形因子对暖温带森林群落物种丰富度-地上生物量关系的影响

地形因子是森林群落物种丰富度与生产力的重要影响因素,可以修正物种丰富度-生产力两者之间的关系。为了厘清地形因子对物种丰富度-生产力关系的修正效应,以东灵山暖温带天然次生林为研究对象,基于20 hm2样地DEM地图,提取海拔、坡度、坡向、凹凸度等地形因子,用GLM模型探讨了地形因子对群落丰富度与地上生物量的影响。结果表明,群落地上生物量与物种丰富度分别受不同地形因子的影响,群落地上生物量受Ea、El2、El3、Co34个因子的显著影响（P〈0.05）,而物种丰富度则受Sl、El、El2、El34个因子的显著作用（P〈0.05）,两者受海拔相关因子的影响最大,分别解释了两者3.99%和11.09%的变异。地形因子修正了物种丰富度-地上生物量之间的单峰曲线关系,使其朝着单调与直线化趋势变化。以后在探讨森林群落物种丰富度-生产力关系时,地形因子的修正作用应该受到重视。     

Cattle Grazing Impacts on Annual Forbs and Vegetation Composition of Mesic Grasslands in California

Abstract:   Livestock grazing represents a major human alteration of natural disturbance regimes in grasslands throughout the world, and its impacts on plant communities have been highly debated. We investigated the impact of cattle grazing on the California coastal prairie plant community with a focus on native annual forbs, a number of which are of conservation concern. In spring 2000 and 2001, we surveyed the vegetation community composition, vegetation structure, and soil chemical parameters at 25 paired grazed and ungrazed sites over a 670-km range of the ecosystem. Native annual forb species richness and cover were higher in grazed sites, and this effect was concomitant with decreased vegetation height and litter depth. Soil properties explained less of the variation. Exotic annual grass and forb cover were higher in grazed sites. Native grass cover and species richness did not differ in grazed and ungrazed sites, but cover and species richness of native perennial forbs were higher in ungrazed sites. Our results suggest that cattle grazing may be a valuable management tool with which to conserve native annual forbs in the ecosystem we studied but that grazing differentially affects the various life-history guilds. Therefore, land managers must focus on creating a matrix of disturbance regimes to maintain the suite of species native to these mesic grasslands. The results of this and other studies highlight the importance of considering the adaptation of vegetation communities to disturbance in making recommendations for grazing management.     

Influence of a dominant consumer species reverses at increased diversity

Theory and experiments indicate that changes in consumer diversity affect benthic community structure and ecosystem functioning. Although the effects of consumer diversity have been tested in the laboratory and the field, little is known about effects of consumer diversity in the subtidal zone, one of the largest marine habitats. We investigated the grazing effects of sea urchins on algal abundance and benthic community structure in a natural subtidal habitat of the Galápagos Islands. Three species of urchins (Eucidaris, Lytechinus, and Tripneustes) were manipulated in inclusion cages following a replacement design with three levels of species richness (one, two, and three species) with all possible two-species urchin combinations. Identity was the main factor accounting for changes in the percentage of substrate grazed and benthic community structure. Two out of the three two-species assemblages grazed more than expected, suggesting a richness effect, but analyses revealed that this increased grazing was due to a sampling effect of the largest and commercially valued urchin species, Tripneustes. Benthic community structure in treatments with Eucidaris, Lytechinus, and Tripneustes alone was significantly different at the end of the experiment, suggesting that resource use differentiation occurred. Communities in Tripneustes enclosures were characterized by abundant crustose coralline algae and grazed substrate, while those without it contained abundant green foliose algae (Ulva sp.). An unexpected emergent property of the system was that the most species-rich urchin assemblage underyielded, grazing less than any other assemblage with Tripneustes, effectively reversing its dominant influence observed in the two-species treatments. While further experiments are needed to discern the mechanisms of underyielding, it may be related to changing interspecific interactions as richness increases from two to three species or to density-dependent Tripneustes grazing. This study highlights the general importance of evaluating consumer richness effects across the entire range of species richness considered, as the performance of the most species-rich consumer assemblage could not be predicted by manipulations of intermediate levels of consumer species richness.     

Direct and indirect control of grassland community structure by litter, resources, and biomass

Multiple factors linked through complex networks of interaction including fertilization, aboveground biomass, and litter control the diversity of plant communities. The challenge of explaining plant diversity is to determine not only how each individual mechanism directly influences diversity, but how those mechanisms indirectly influence diversity through interactions with other mechanisms. This approach is well established in the study of plant species richness, but surprisingly little effort has been dedicated toward understanding the controls of community evenness, despite the recognition that this aspect of diversity can influence a variety of critical ecosystem functions. Similarly, studies of diversity have predominantly focused on the influence of shoot, rather than root, biomass, despite the fact that the majority of plant biomass is belowground in many natural communities. In this study, I examine the roles of belowground biomass, live aboveground biomass, litter, and light availability in controlling the species richness and evenness of a rough fescue grassland community using structural equation modeling. Litter was the primary mechanism structuring grassland diversity, with both richness and evenness declining with increasing litter cover. There were few relationships between shoot biomass, shading, and diversity, and more importantly, no relationship between root biomass and diversity. The lack of relationship between root biomass and species richness and evenness suggests that, even though root competition in grasslands is intense, belowground interactions may not play an important role in structuring community diversity or composition.     

Vegetation dynamics in succession process from Stipa bungeana to Artemisia ordosica in the Ordos Plateau北大核心CSCD

Shrub invasion has a serious effect on the structure and function of grassland ecosystems and understanding vegetation dynamics is of great significance to control shrub invasion and recover shrub invaded grassland. In the Ordos Plateau, we selected representative communities in transition process from Stipa bungeana to Artemisia ordosica. By sampling, cutting, and root-drilling methods, plant coverage, density, biomass, litter, root, and species diversity of different communities were investigated and analyzed. The results showed the following: (1) the succession process had six vegetation types, S. bungeana communities, S. bungeana + Cleistogenes squarrosa communities, S. bungeana + Artemisia ordosica communities, A. ordosica + C. squarrosa communities, A. ordosica + Lespedeza davurica communities, and A. ordosica communities. (2) The community coverage decreased initially, and then increased. Whereas, the total density decreased initially, then increased, and then decreased. The aboveground, underground, and total biomasses, and the dry weight of litter showed an increasing trend. (3) The coverage, density, and biomass of S. bungeana decreased gradually, whereas A. ordosica showed an opposite trend. (4) With the increase in soil depth, the dry weight of root showed a decreasing trend. The roots were mainly distributed in the 0-30 cm soil layer. At VI stage, the root distribution of Artemisia community initially increased, and then decreased, and the root depth reached 80-90 cm. (5) The species richness, Simpson, Shannon-Winner, and Pielou evenness indexes initially increased, and then decreased. In summary, shrub encroachment is severe in the Ordos Plateau. Although the community coverage, biomass, and biodiversity during the moderate shrub encroachment stage were high, the shrub-invaded grassland should be restored to S. bungeana grassland due to the decreased grazing value of grassland after shrub invasion. Keywords. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

Vegetation development influenced by grazing in the coastal dunes near The Hague, The Netherlands

In 1990, grazing was introduced in a section of Meijendel, a coastal sand dune system near The Hague, The Netherlands. After five years an evaluation was made of the effects of grazing on vegetation development. Three transects were established, two in grazed areas and one in an ungrazed area. Field survey data were classified by means of TWIN-SPAN, ordinated with Detrended Correspondence Analysis and the resulting vegetation types interpreted according to Westhoff & den Held (1969). All associations were found in both the grazed and the ungrazed areas, but at the subassociation and variant level some communities appeared to be restricted to the grazed area. These variants were five grassland variants characterized by disturbance indicators such asSenecio sylvaticus andCynoglossum officinale. The total number of plant species in the 19 permanent plots, which had been observed to have been decreasing since 1960, showed a considerable increase after the introduction of horses and cows in 1990. A marked decrease in the cover ofCalamagrostis epigejos andCarex arenaria since 1990 was evident, while in some plots species such asRibes rubrum andViburnum opulus increased considerably. A series of false-colour aerial photographs were used to compare vegetation structure in the three transects between 1990 and 1995. In the grazed area the tall grass vegetation had almost totally disappeared, whereas the areas of open sand. sand with moss and lichens, and low grass vegetation had increased and the pattern had become more fine-grained. In the ungrazed area the area covered by low grass vegetation had increased at the expense of the area of sand with moss and lichens and the pattern had become more coarse-grained.     

Use of ecoacoustics to determine biodiversity patterns across ecological gradients

The variety of local animal sounds characterizes a landscape. We used ecoacoustics to noninvasively assess the species richness of various biotopes typical of an ecofriendly forest plantation with diverse ecological gradients and both nonnative and indigenous vegetation. The reference area was an adjacent large World Heritage Site protected area (PA). All sites were in a global biodiversity hotspot. Our results showed how taxa segregated into various biotopes. We identified 65 singing species, including birds, frogs, crickets, and katydids. Large, natural, protected grassland sites in the PA had the highest mean acoustic diversity (14.1 species/site). Areas covered in nonnative timber or grass species were devoid of acoustic species. Sites grazed by native and domestic megaherbivores were fairly rich (5.1) in acoustic species but none were unique to this habitat type, where acoustic diversity was greater than in intensively managed grassland sites (0.04). Natural vegetation patches inside the plantation mosaic supported high mean acoustic diversity (indigenous forests 7.6, grasslands 8.0, wetlands 9.1), which increased as plant heterogeneity and patch size increased. Indigenous forest patches within the plantation mosaic contained a highly characteristic acoustic species assemblage, emphasizing their complementary contribution to local biodiversity. Overall, acoustic signals determined spatial biodiversity patterns and can be a useful tool for guiding conservation.