酸化土壤活性铝溶出及形态变化的初步研究

用模拟酸雨酸化浙江省３种主要类型土壤，研究了酸化土壤活性铝的溶出和铝的形态变化。结果表明：酸雨对强酸性土壤（ｐＨ＜５）中活性铝的释出有一定促进作用，活性铝以Ａ１￣（３－）离子为主。当土壤ｐＨ值＞５时．活性铝以单聚羟基铝为主。酸化土壤中的活性铝主要是由土壤中固相的Ａｌ（ＯＨ）转化而来。     

我国南方主要酸沉降区土壤中铝的释放与缓冲作用

本文研究了我国南方酸沉降区主要土壤类型在模拟酸雨影响下淋溶液ｐＨ值及Ａｌ离子释放特点，结果表明，石灰土和滨海盐土的阳离子淋溶量低于阳离子交换量，土壤主要处于阳离子交换缓冲范围和碳酸盐－硅酸盐缓冲范围，Ａｌ释放量一般低于０．４０ｍｍｏｌ·ｋｇ＾－１。     

酸沉降下加速土壤酸化的影响因素

酸沉降对土壤和水域的酸化影响是土壤环境化学研究前沿的热点问题之一。酸沉降的化学组成对酸性土壤的进一步酸化起着催化剂的作用。在酸雨影响下,SO42-、NO-3、有机阴离子是加速土壤酸化和盐基淋溶损失的主要阴离子,外源H+的进入会加速铝离子水解。自然因素与人为因素导致土壤酸化的实际酸化速率差异表明:HCO3-、RCOO-在土壤剖面中的淋失状况可反映自然土壤的酸化速率,而SO42-和NO-3淋溶产生的质子负荷揭示土壤受人为因素影响的酸化速率。通过计算酸沉降的主要化学成分进入土壤前后的质子负荷平衡,与酸中和容量(ANC)相结合,反映酸沉降加速土壤酸化的进程。     

青岛近岸区域典型海陆人为交互作用下酸雨的化学特征

作为我国北方地区酸雨最为严重的城市之一,青岛及其近岸区域酸雨的研究对揭示典型海陆人为交互作用下酸雨形成机理具有典型的示范性.本文从酸雨的现状及变化、酸雨形成机制及影响因素、雨水中致酸/碱性成分的来源入手,系统总结了青岛近岸区域酸雨的化学特征.结果表明,青岛近岸区域自1981年以来酸雨状况有所减轻,但2006年以来又有加重的趋势,并由"硫酸型"酸雨向"硫-硝混合型"酸雨转变.局地人为源SO2和NOx的排放、区域外污染物的输送以及海上浮游生物释放的二甲基硫(DMS)是该地区大气致酸物质的3条重要输入途径.大气中致酸成分前体物的浓度和排放强度、气溶胶中酸化缓冲/碱性物质的含量以及复杂多变的气象条件是该区域酸雨形成的主要控制因素.人为源和地壳源分别是大气中致酸成分和碱性成分的主要来源,海盐源硫酸盐气溶胶会对降水酸性产生一定的稀释作用.今后的研究应特别重视:(1)降水p H的动态变化及与大气颗粒物的相互作用;(2)低分子有机弱酸、重金属及与污染有机物的复合污染作用机制对酸雨的影响;(3)优化酸沉降模型,精确量化解析不同来源对雨水酸性成分的贡献;(4)雾、露、霜等其它形式的酸沉降及沉降通量.深入研究青岛近岸区域酸雨的地球化学特征,不但有助于加深对海陆人为交互作用下我国东部沿海经济发达地区大气污染与酸沉降形成机理及其生态效应的认识,还可为科学制定酸雨防控对策提供理论依据.     

模拟酸雨对酸性土壤铝溶出及其形态转化的影响

研究了我国南方酸沉降区主要土壤类型在模拟酸雨影响下，土壤中铝离子释放及铝形态转化的特点。结果表明，酸雨淋洗造成土壤中铝离子释放，酸雨pH值越低，铝离子释放量越大；酸雨淋洗还造成土壤中铝形态发生变化，酸雨pH越低，土壤中羟基态铝和腐殖质铝含量愈低，交换态铝含量越高，土壤中铝对植物和生态系统的危害性也越大。     

我国南方一些酸性土壤铝存在形态的初步研究

以连续提取法研究了我国南方主要酸性土壤铝的形态及其分布特点，探讨了不同铝形态之间的关系及其与母质、成土过程、环境条件的联系。还研究了土壤酸化对铝形态转化的影响．并以连续提取法提取的三种铝形态（交换性铝、活性羟基铝，有机络合态铝）来讨论现今常用的Ａｌ。（Ｔａｍｍ溶液提取）和Ａｌｄ（ＤＣＢ溶液提取）所可能包含的实际土壤铝形态，分析表明，Ａｌ０和Ａｌｄ无明确的形态意义，只是上种由操作定义的多形态组成的混合物。     

模拟酸雨对峨眉山冷杉林土壤特性的研究

本文采用模拟酸雨方法，考察了峨眉山不同区域冷杉生长正常区和受害区的土壤样品，在酸沉降影响下，土壤特性所发生的改变，测定了土壤酸碱度及主要元素含量。同时以未受到酸沉降侵蚀的贡嗄山土样作为对照点，探讨由酸沉降所造成的土壤酸化，进而引起土壤特性改变与冷杉生长间的关系。     

应用灰色系统理论预测土壤酸化趋势

本文以各组分组成的土壤酸中和容量动态变化作为指标,用灰色系统控制理论对酸雨引起南方土壤的酸化趋势进行定量的预测分析。     

广东鹤山陆地生态系统豆料树种林抗酸能力初探

对广东鹤山豆科树种林抗酸能力进行了研究，结果表明豆科树种林林冠有一定的抗酸能力，林内降水穿透雨ｐＨ值比大气降水高，但是从林冠层流失了大量的营养离子，林冠层负电荷的长期积累使豆科树种林更容易酸化，豆科树种林０～１０ｃｍ层土壤酸化很严重，盐提ｐＨ值都在４．０以下，相对于较低的ｐＨ值，盐基饱和度比较高，都超过２５％，土壤缓冲能力仍比较强，豆科树种大呈相思林土壤酸缓冲能力比马占相思林强。     

酸沉降对森林生态系统碳循环关键过程的影响研究进展

随着经济飞速发展与能源消耗快速攀升,中国已成为全球酸沉降最严重的地区之一.酸沉降能够引起地表植被破坏、土壤酸化等一系列的环境问题,在全球范围受到普遍关注.作为全球最重要的生态系统之一,森林生态系统受到酸沉降的深刻影响.本文通过分析国内外已发表的相关文章,综述酸沉降对森林生态系统碳循环关键过程的影响及可能的机理.(1)对植物光合作用的影响:酸沉降通过改变叶绿素含量、气孔导度及酶活性等影响叶片光合作用,而且叶片光合功能受损程度与酸沉降强度和类型有关;(2)对林木生长的影响:酸沉降通过改变叶片结构和诱导土壤酸化影响林木生长,通常酸沉降会抑制林木生长,但会因酸沉降强度和类型有所差异;(3)对凋落物分解的影响:酸沉降通过改变土壤酶活性、微生物群落结构等对不同森林类型凋落物分解产生影响,其影响程度和方向与土壤的酸缓冲能力和酸沉降类型有关;(4)对土壤呼吸(Rs)的影响:酸沉降对Rs的影响受到根系生物量、微生物、酶活性及温度等多种因素共同作用,Rs的不同组分对酸沉降的响应机制不同;(5)对土壤有机碳(SOC)的影响:通常情况下,酸沉降抑制水溶性有机碳(DOC)的溶解,降低微生物活性及生物量从而有利于SOC的积累与稳定.通过探讨森林生态系统碳动态对酸沉降响应的不确定性因素,建议今后加强以下几方面研究:(1)干湿酸沉降比较;(2)酸沉降对树干呼吸、地下碳分配等其他关键生态过程的影响;(3)酸沉降与其他全球变化因子的耦合;(4)酸沉降对森林生态系统碳循环的长期影响.(图1表2参87)     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.