纤维素酸解副产物对Clostridium acetobutylicum CICC8012发酵的影响

为确定纤维素酸解副产物对C.acetobutylicum CICC8012发酵生产纤维燃料丁醇的影响,选择乙酸根、甲酸、葡萄糖醛酸、氯化钠、硫酸钠、糠醛、羟甲基糠醛(HMF)、香豆酸、阿魏酸、丁香醛、香草醛等纤维素酸解副产物,研究其对菌种发酵的影响.结果表明:甲酸和酚类物质的抑制作用强烈,0.5 g/L的甲酸、阿魏酸或香豆酸存在时对丁醇的抑制率分别为88.1%、22.1%、82.4%,丁香醛(≥0.5 g/L)、香草醛(≥2 g/L)可使发酵的延滞期变长,但抑制作用小于阿魏酸和香豆酸;1 g/L的糠醛、HMF、葡萄糖醛酸存在时对丁醇的抑制率分别为9.8%、4.6%、7.3%,10 g/L乙酸钠存在时对丁醇的抑制率为4.8%,这4种物质对丁醇发酵的抑制作用不大;硫酸钠、氯化钠质量浓度大于5 g/L时对发酵产生抑制作用,浓度达到20 g/L时菌体几乎不能生长.当各抑制物混合时,若抑制物的含量超过临界点,各抑制物间存在相互促进的作用;小麦秸秆水解液的发酵结果表明,水解液成分复杂,抑制作用更为强烈.     

3种抗生素对羊角月牙藻次生代谢的影响

研究乳糖酸红霉素、盐酸环丙沙星和磺胺甲噁唑3种抗生素对羊角月牙藻体内缩酚酸、类黄酮等次生代谢产物含量及苯丙氨酸解氨酶活性的影响.结果显示,3种抗生素会对羊角月牙藻次生代谢产生强烈影响.乳糖酸红霉素可造成苯丙氨酸解氨酶活性下降,并使各类次生代谢产物含量降低,其中对类黄酮的影响最大;而盐酸环丙沙星和磺胺甲噁唑则会使苯丙氨酸解氨酶活性及各类代谢产物含量上升,其中盐酸环丙沙星对缩酚酸、黄酮及黄烷醇的影响要强于磺胺甲噁唑,而花青素则对磺胺甲噁唑更为敏感.此外,绿原酸的含量在乳糖酸红霉素处理后低于缩酚酸的总体水平,而在盐酸环丙沙星和磺胺甲噁唑处理后的变化则正好相反.结果表明,乳糖酸红霉素对羊角月牙藻次生代谢具有显著的抑制作用,而盐酸环丙沙星与磺胺甲噁唑则表现出较明显的促进效应,且不同次生代谢产物响应的敏感程度随不同种类抗生素而有所不同.     

五爪金龙凋落叶腐解物的化感潜力研究

采用莴苣种子为受体,测试了五爪金龙凋落叶早期腐解物的化感作用,并与其鲜叶及凋落叶的化感潜力进行了比较分析。结果如下:凋落叶40d的腐解物、鲜叶及凋落叶的水提取液均具有较强的化感潜力,并表现出低促高抑的浓度效应,在FW0.1g﹒mL-1高质量浓度下的综合化感抑制强度为凋落叶未能加土壤的腐解物>鲜叶>凋落叶加土壤的腐解物>凋落叶,而在FW0.005g﹒mL-1低质量浓度下的综合化感促进作用是凋落叶>鲜叶>凋落叶加土壤的腐解物>凋落叶未加土壤的腐解物。鲜叶的抑制强度较凋落叶的大,表明叶片在衰老过程中抑制作用减弱。凋落叶未加土壤仅在空气微生物作用下的腐解物抑制作用最强,促进作用最小,而加入土壤后在土壤微生物作用下的腐解物的抑制作用却有所减弱,抑制强度介于鲜叶和凋落叶的之间,促进作用却小于鲜叶和凋落叶,说明凋落叶腐解过程中微生物的参与对化感作用产生了复杂的影响。     

不同比例湿解产物在土壤中的物质变化及腐熟度

将经湿解工艺处理后的园林废物与土壤按1：3、1：5和1：10（湿质量）3种比例均匀混合作为实验物料，同时以自然土壤作为参照，研究了在田间条件下，不同浓度的湿解产物在土壤中的物质变化以及腐熟度。结果表明：在培养期间，3种比例混合物料的温度均接近于土壤对照样的温度，稍低于环境温度；pH值均略呈碱性，并随土壤浓度的增加而接近土壤对照样的pH值；ω（C）／ω（N）比、ω（水溶性有机碳WSC）／ω（有机态氮Norg）和ω（NH4^＋-N）／ω（NO3^--N）均随培养时间的增加而下降，而阳离子交换最（CEC）和CEC／ω（全C）恰好相反，并随湿解产物浓度的增加而增加，14d后，这些指标均接近土壤对照样的参数，实验结束时，均达腐熟。3种比例混合物料的种子发芽系数均大于80%，湿解产物浓度对种子发芽系数无明显抑制作用，湿解后的产物可直接安全应用于土壤中。     

秸秆腐解剂在秸秆还田中的效果研究初报

在大田、微区和盆栽条件下，研究了秸秆腐解剂对小麦、水稻生长及产量的影响，同时研究了秸秆腐解剂对小麦、水稻秸秆腐解速率及对土壤肥力的影响。结果表明，稻、麦秸秆还田时施用秸秆腐解剂对提高稻、麦产量具有明显的增产效果，增产的原因是穗数和粒数增加；稻、麦秸秆还田量不同时，还田量大且配施秸秆腐解剂的效果较还田量小好；麦秸秆还田方式不同时，麦秸以栽稻前耕翻还田且配施秸秆腐解剂的效果较好，上水沤制的效果较差；秸秆腐解剂能促进稻、麦秸秆较快腐解，减轻和防止多量秸秆还田给作物生长带来不利影响，并可稳定和提高土壤养分含量。     

有机腐解物对白浆土中金属氧化物的溶解作用及其磷素效应

采用三江平原典型白浆土,加入不同形态和数量的牧草腐解物,观测了土壤中Ｆｅ、Ａｌ、Ｐ元素含量随培养时间的变化,讨论了有机腐解物对土壤氧化物的络合、溶解作用以及对土壤磷素营养的影响。     

马铃薯连作对土壤微生物群落结构和功能的影响

采用BIOLOG技术,研究马铃薯连作对土壤微生物群落结构和功能的影响。研究发现：连作土壤湿热灭菌后,细菌、放线菌及微生物总量都明显升高,真菌数量显著降低。连作土壤添加马铃薯残茬后,细菌数量降低,真菌数量增加。连作土壤中微生物对多聚化合物和碳水化合物的利用能力较高;湿热灭菌后,土壤微生物对6类碳源的利用率有升有降,表现为对羧酸类化合物、芳香化合物的利用率升高,对多聚化合物、碳水化合物、氨基酸、胺类化合物的利用率降低,微生物丰富度和均匀度降低。土壤病源微生物可能是马铃薯连作障碍发生的原因之一。     

杨树人工林连作与轮作土壤酚酸降解细菌群落特征及酚酸降解代谢规律

杨树人工林的连作障碍与土壤中的酚酸累积有密切关系.采用宏基因组测序技术研究I-107(Populus×euramericanna‘Neva’)欧美杨人工林连作与轮作土壤酚酸降解细菌群落特征及酚酸降解代谢的演变规律.供试土壤中共发现5种酚酸降解细菌,分别是假单胞菌(Pseudomonas sp.)、鲍氏不动杆菌(Acinetobacter baumannii)、皮氏罗尔斯顿菌(Ralstonia pickettii)、Acetobacteraceae bacterium AT-5844、多噬伯克霍尔德菌(Burkholderia multivorans).土壤酚酸降解细菌的丰度因人工林主伐更新轮作方式而异(P0.05),表现为Ⅰ代林地轮荒地轮作花生地Ⅱ代林地.杨树Ⅰ代林和Ⅱ代林土壤酚酸降解细菌的群落结构基本一致,总丰度Ⅱ代林较Ⅰ代林减少了9.69%,根际土壤中皮氏罗尔斯顿菌和Acetobacteraceae bacterium AT-5844丰度明显高于非根际土壤,根际效应明显;与杨树Ⅱ代林地相比,轮作花生地和轮荒地土壤中酚酸降解细菌总丰度分别增加了1.74%和8.27%.供试土壤中共发现6种酚酸降解关键酶,不同土壤中酚酸降解酶基因表达丰度存在显著差异(P0.05),总体表现为Ⅰ代林地Ⅱ代林地轮作花生地轮荒地,杨树Ⅱ代林地比Ⅰ代林地低11.18%,而轮作花生地和轮荒地分别又比杨树Ⅱ代林地低27.62%和19.90%,但轮作花生地和轮荒地中酚酸脱羧酶的基因表达丰度较杨树Ⅱ代林分别增加了73.33%和33.33%.因此,杨树人工林连作一代后,土壤中酚酸降解细菌的生长和代谢活性均受到了抑制;轮作可以改善连作对杨树人工林部分土壤酚酸降解细菌生长繁殖和代谢活动的影响.     

大豆叶片黄酮类及多酚类物质对臭氧浓度升高的响应

利用开顶式气室(Open Top Chamber,OTC),通过测定大豆叶片中黄酮类物质(总黄酮、芦丁、槲皮素和桑色素)和酚类物质(总多酚、阿魏酸和P-香豆酰)含量变化,以及苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)、多酚氧化酶(PPO)及脂肪氧化酶(LOX)3种酶活性变化,研究O_3浓度升高对大豆叶片黄酮类和多酚类物质及其氧化酶的影响。以大气臭氧浓度为对照,设置110n L·L~(-1) O_3浓度为一个处理,每个处理设3个OTCs重复。结果表明,随着大豆生育期的延长,与对照相比,总黄酮、芦丁、槲皮素和桑色素都表现出先上升后下降的趋势,在开花期达到峰值,且显著(P0.05)高于对照;P-香豆酰含量表现出先上升后下降的趋势,在开花期达到峰值,总多酚和阿魏酸都显著(P0.05)上升;PAL、PPO、LOX 3种酶的活性与对照相比都显著(P0.05)升高。O_3浓度升高会诱导大豆叶片内PAL和PPO活性增强,进而增加叶片内黄酮类和多酚类物质的含量,提高大豆叶片抗氧化性,抵抗O_3的伤害。但随着O_3熏蒸时间的延长,大豆抗氧化性下降,导致籽粒产量下降。     

气相色谱/质谱(GC-MS)结合自动解卷积与鉴定系统(AMDIS)软件分析镉胁迫对玉米幼苗代谢产物的影响

采用气质联用并结合自动解卷积(AMDIS)技术和保留指数分析了土壤中镉对玉米幼苗的代谢产物的影响.结果确定了39种代谢物,其匹配率大于75%,保留指数在0.3%—1.7%的误差之内;代谢物分析对比结果显示,镉主要通过下调莽草酸途径中的多个代谢物(莽草酸、酪氨酸、奎尼酸和咖啡酸)和三羧酸循环中的苹果酸和柠檬酸以及乳酸、葡萄糖、天冬氨酸、天冬酰胺和3-磷酸甘油等途径影响玉米生长.代谢产物的结果表明,植物表观生长虽然没有受到抑制,但代谢产物已经受到了镉的影响.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Importance of greater interdisciplinarity and geographic scope when tackling the driving forces behind biological invasions

Invasive non-native species are important drivers of ecosystem change, yet the driving forces of biological invasions themselves are poorly understood. Such information is essential to ensure policies focus on the most relevant drivers, and that future scenarios capture the full range of potential outcomes for invasive non-native species. I carried out a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2000 to 2020 that address either invasive non-native species or biodiversity and ecosystem services and that also mention 1 or more drivers of ecosystem change. I examined 5 indirect drivers (demographic, economic, governance, sociocultural, and technological) and 6 direct drivers (climate change, invasive non-native species, land-use or sea-use change, natural hazards, pollution, and resource extraction). Using the Web of Science core collection of citation indexes, I undertook searches of article titles and keywords and retrieved 27,462 articles addressing invasive non-native species and 110,087 articles dealing with biodiversity or ecosystem services. Most research to date on biological invasions as well as on biodiversity and ecosystem services has focused on anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem change rather than indirect drivers. Yet currently, less than 18% of articles addressing biological invasions examined drivers of ecosystem change, a similar level to that found over 20 years ago for biodiversity or ecosystem services. Knowledge of the drivers of biological invasions is limited, emphasizes tractable drivers over those that require an interdisciplinary approach, and is biased toward developed economies. Drivers generally deemed important for biological invasions, such as governance and resource extraction, accounted for less than 2% of research effort. The absence of a systematic understanding of the forces that drive invasive non-native species and how they interact means that attempts to mitigate or forecast biological invasions are likely to fail. To address biological invasions requires a much better orientation of national and international research on drivers in relation to both their actual importance as well as their policy relevance.