稻田施用沼渣对甲烷排放通量的影响

通过网室小区试验，观测得出：（１）４种沼渣处理和单施化肥处理的一季稻田平均甲烷排放通量为０．５６９～２．１８８ｍｇ０￣２·ｈ，两者无显著差异；农家肥处理稻田的平均甲烷排放通量为４４．１８ｍｇ／ｍ￣２·ｈ显著高于前两种处理，表明施用沼渣和化肥比施用农家肥能显著减少稻田甲烷排放量；（２）各处理稻田甲烷排放通量峰值期部出现在水稻蘖期至拔节初期，表明这一时期是控制稻田甲烷排放总量的关键时间；（３）各处理甲烷排放通量分别与淹水前各处理土壤及供试有机肥的易矿化碳含量、ＣＨ＿４－Ｃ含量呈显著正相关关系，这表明土壤易矿化碳含量是形成稻田甲烷的重要条件；（４）各处理之间水稻产量没有明显差异。     

控制稻田甲烷排放的农业技术选择

本文探讨了通过农业技术措施，控制稻田甲烷排放以及减少甲烷排放的潜力。试验结果表明：（１）用沼渣代替农家肥堆肥作基肥时，４种沼渣基肥处理中，有３种处理稻田甲烷排放通量比施农家肥的处理减少２４～６２％，比单纯施化肥处理减少１１～５６％；１种沼渣（马粪）由于腐熟度不够，其处理甲烷减排效果不明显；（２）改换氮肥的施用种类。以硝铵、硫铵代替尿素作追肥，甲烷排放通量分别减少２６％和４６％；（３）稻田的科学灌溉技术，从水用分蘖到抽穗期间，间歇落干，可以明显减少甲烷排放，而对产量无影响；（４）水稻半旱式栽培技术，也可明显抑制稻田甲烷排放。     

长期施肥对双季稻田根际土壤微生物群落功能多样性的影响

微生物群落功能多样性是表征土壤质量变化的敏感指标,施肥措施可对土壤微生物群落功能多样性产生明显的影响。以位于双季稻主产区湖南省宁乡县国家级稻田肥力长期定位试验田为研究对象,应用Biolog技术分析了不同施肥处理(化肥、秸秆还田+化肥、30%有机肥、60%有机肥、无肥对照)对双季稻田根际土壤微生物功能多样性的影响,从根际土壤微生物功能多样性的角度评价施肥对土壤质量的影响。研究结果表明,有机肥与化肥配施以及单施化肥处理水稻根际土壤微生物对碳源的利用程度均显著高于其他处理,而秸秆还田处理水稻根际土壤微生物对碳源的利用程度低于无肥处理。在早稻和晚稻成熟期,Mc Intosh指数均以60%有机肥和30%有机肥处理为最高,其次为施用化肥和无肥处理,秸秆还田处理最低;Richness和Shannon指数大小顺序均表现为60%有机肥30%有机肥秸秆还田无肥化肥。土壤微生物碳源利用的主成分分析表明,各施肥处理水稻根际土壤微生物群落利用的主要碳源为氨基酸类和糖类,但不同施肥处理间碳源利用类型存在较大差异。总的来说,不同的施肥处理对水稻根际土壤微生物功能多样性产生了不同影响,长期有机肥配施化肥有利于维持稻田根际土壤微生物群落多样性。     

有机-无机肥不同配施比例对稻季CH_4和N_2O排放的影响

2015年通过大田小区试验,以粳稻品种武运粳29号为供试材料,在等氮量有机肥替代化肥条件下,设置5个不同有机-无机肥配施比例处理,采用静态箱暗箱-气相色谱法,对水稻生长季稻田CH_4和N_2O排放通量进行观测,并运用全球增温潜势(global warming potentials,GWP)对稻田CH_4和N_2O排放的温室效应进行测算。结果表明:(1)不同处理稻季CH_4排放的季节性变化趋势基本一致,但排放量大小差异显著,单施化肥(M1)、25%有机肥(M2)、50%有机肥(M3)、75%有机肥(M4)、100%有机肥(M5)替代化肥处理稻季CH_4累积排放量分别为203.37、242.06、255.04、288.06、334.46 kg·hm-2;不同处理稻季N_2O排放的季节性变化趋势也基本一致,但排放量大小差异显著,M1、M2、M3、M4、M5处理稻季N_2O累积排放量分别为3.96、3.43、3.27、2.97、2.60 kg·hm-2;(2)不同处理稻季排放CH_4和N_2O产生的增温潜势高低顺序为:M5M4M3M2M1,M5处理的增温潜势为9 136.8 kg·hm-2;(3)有机肥替代化肥与单施化肥比较,增加了太湖地区的稻田温室效应,但是,50%有机肥替代化肥的M3处理在获得较高水稻产量的同时,其单位产量的全球增温潜势在配施有机肥的各处理中表现为最低,是相对适宜的有机肥替代化肥的替代比例。     

水稻小麦种植模式下长期定位施肥土壤氮的垂直变化及氮储量

为了研究不同的施肥方式对土壤全氮变化及氮储量的影响,1981年在湖北省农业科学院南湖试验站设置了施用有机肥与化肥的长期定位田间试验,2006年水稻收获后田间取样分析每个处理不同土层的全氮含量与氮储量。研究结果表明：与对照相比,单施化肥与单施有机肥0～20cm土层土壤的容重下降,化肥添加有机肥比相应的单施化肥的容重要低一些。除了对照之外,其它处理都是0～20cm土层土壤全氮含量高于其它土层,氮肥配施有机肥处理0～20cm土层土壤全氮含量最高。除了氮磷钾肥配施过量有机肥处理外,化肥配施有机肥处理土壤的全氮含量都高于单施化肥或单施有机肥处理,20～40cm土层土壤全氮含量具有相似的规律。在0～20cm土层,与对照相比,单施氮肥及氮磷肥不能增加土壤全氮储量,但是化肥配施有机肥能够增加土壤全氮的储量。单施氮磷钾肥及单施有机肥也能够增加土壤全氮的储量。在0～20cm土层,氮肥配施有机肥处理的土壤全氮储量最多,达8.82t·hm-2,而氮肥处理的氮储量最低,仅为5.38t·hm-2。在100cm深度,与单施化肥及单施有机肥相比,化肥配施有机肥都增加了土壤全氮的储量。     

长期施肥对大麦生育期双季稻田土壤微生物生物量碳、氮和微生物商的影响

长期有机无机肥配施定位试验条件下,关于不同施肥处理对稻田土壤微生物特性方面的研究目前还较少。为探明大麦(Hordaum vulgare L.)各个生育时期不同施肥处理对大麦-双季稻三熟制种植模式中稻田土壤微生物生物量碳、氮和微生物商的影响,以湖南宁乡长期定位试验为平台,应用氯仿熏蒸-K2SO4提取法和化学分析法系统分析了长达28年5种施肥处理之间(化肥、秸秆还田+化肥、30%有机肥+70%化肥、60%有机肥+40%化肥和无肥)稻田土壤微生物生物量碳、氮和微生物商及大麦产量的差异。结果表明,大麦各主要生育时期,长期施肥均能提高土壤微生物生物量碳、氮含量和微生物商,各施肥处理土壤微生物生物量碳、氮含量和微生物商均随生育期推进呈增加的变化趋势,均于齐穗期达到最大值;其中,化肥、秸秆还田、30%有机肥和60%有机肥处理土壤微生物生物量碳含量分别比无肥增加20.04%、26.47%、45.94%和51.42%,土壤微生物生物量氮含量分别比无肥增加12.87%、18.42%、32.16%和36.55%。60%有机肥和30%有机肥处理土壤微生物生物量碳、氮含量和微生物商均为最高,均显著高于其他处理,其大小顺序表现为60%有机肥30%有机肥秸秆还田化肥无肥。各施肥处理大麦产量分别比无肥增产357.6、683.0、721.2和782.1 kg·hm-2。长期有机无机肥配施可以提高土壤微生物生物量碳、氮和微生物商,有机肥与化肥配施对提高土壤肥力和增产效果最好。微生物生物量碳、氮及微生物商可以反映土壤质量的变化,作为评价土壤肥力的生物学指标。     

有机肥等氮替代化肥对稻田CH_4和N_2O排放的影响

自2015年中国实施化肥施用量零增长行动以来,有机肥部分替代化肥的研究越来越受到关注。该试验,采用静态箱-色谱法对宁波地区稻麦轮作系统CH_4和N_2O排放进行了田间原位观测,研究两种有机肥分别以不同比例等氮替代化肥对稻田CH_4和N_2O排放及水稻产量的影响。试验设置不施氮肥(CK)、全量化肥(U)、25%城市污泥堆肥(25%S)、25%猪粪堆肥(25%P)、50%城市污泥堆肥(50%S)、50%猪粪堆肥(50%P)6个处理。结果表明,与U处理相比,有机肥替代处理的CH_4排放量增加18%-51%,其中50%S和50%P处理显著增加稻田CH_4排放量34%-51%(P0.05),CH_4排放量随有机肥替代比例的增加而增加,相同替代比例的城市污泥堆肥处理和猪粪堆肥处理的CH_4排放量无明显差异(P0.05)。相对于U处理,有机肥替代处理显著降低了36%-51%的N_2O排放量(P0.05,25%P处理除外),各有机肥处理间N_2O排放量无显著性差异(P0.05)。稻田排放CH_4和N_2O的全球增温潜势(GWP)为:50%P50%S25%P25%SCKU,其中50%P处理与U处理之间差异显著(P0.05)。有机肥替代处理的水稻产量、有效穗数和穗实粒数分别比U处理高0.2%-3.8%、0.8%-4.1%、0.6%-1.4%(P0.05)。等氮替代条件下,相对于猪粪堆肥,稻田中施用25%城市污泥堆肥替代化学氮肥是一种值得推荐的施肥模式,而其对稻米品质的影响仍需进一步研究。     

亚热带红壤性稻田的甲烷排放

亚热带红壤性稻田的甲烷排放量为５５．２３９／ｍ２·ａ．不同年度间有差异；在年度内（水稻生长季节）亦有差异．以８月排放最多，其余月份依其排放量的顺序是７月，６月，５月，９月，１０月．甲烷排放率的日变化有规律性，１６时前后出现最大值，６时左右出现最小值，呈单峰型，日变化幅度与天气有关，季节变化比较复杂，无规律性，在不同年度、不同稻季（早、晚季），其变化也不一致．稻田甲烷排放与水稻生产和生长密切相关，水稻的种植和生长是稻田甲烷排放的基础和根源．     

不同农业措施对稻田甲烷排放通量的影响

经过三年的田间试验发现,稻田甲烷排放通量随着农业措施的不同而大幅度地变化。在1990年至1992年的三个晚稻生长季节里,试验地块的甲烷排放通量分别为10.83、25.18及19.85mg/m~2·h。半旱式栽培使甲烷排放量减少了约1/3;施用硫酸铵、烤田、间歇灌溉亦可显著地降低甲烷排放通量。高有机肥与长期淹水是造成稻田甲烷排放量大的主要原因。控制稻田甲烷排放的关键在于调节灌溉水。只要采用合适的灌溉制度。有机肥用量的增加不一定引起甲烷排放量的增大。     

稻田甲烷排放量估算和减缓技术选择

根据中国不同生态类型地区的稻田甲烷排放通量，估算了中国稻田甲烷排放总量。结果表明，１９９０年中国稻田甲烷排放总量为１１．３３５Ｔｇ。提出了一些减缓稻田甲烷排放措施，包括：（１）使用稻田甲烷抑制剂；（２）肥料管理；（３）水分管理；（４）筛选低排放率、高产的水稻品种。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Importance of greater interdisciplinarity and geographic scope when tackling the driving forces behind biological invasions

Invasive non-native species are important drivers of ecosystem change, yet the driving forces of biological invasions themselves are poorly understood. Such information is essential to ensure policies focus on the most relevant drivers, and that future scenarios capture the full range of potential outcomes for invasive non-native species. I carried out a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2000 to 2020 that address either invasive non-native species or biodiversity and ecosystem services and that also mention 1 or more drivers of ecosystem change. I examined 5 indirect drivers (demographic, economic, governance, sociocultural, and technological) and 6 direct drivers (climate change, invasive non-native species, land-use or sea-use change, natural hazards, pollution, and resource extraction). Using the Web of Science core collection of citation indexes, I undertook searches of article titles and keywords and retrieved 27,462 articles addressing invasive non-native species and 110,087 articles dealing with biodiversity or ecosystem services. Most research to date on biological invasions as well as on biodiversity and ecosystem services has focused on anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem change rather than indirect drivers. Yet currently, less than 18% of articles addressing biological invasions examined drivers of ecosystem change, a similar level to that found over 20 years ago for biodiversity or ecosystem services. Knowledge of the drivers of biological invasions is limited, emphasizes tractable drivers over those that require an interdisciplinary approach, and is biased toward developed economies. Drivers generally deemed important for biological invasions, such as governance and resource extraction, accounted for less than 2% of research effort. The absence of a systematic understanding of the forces that drive invasive non-native species and how they interact means that attempts to mitigate or forecast biological invasions are likely to fail. To address biological invasions requires a much better orientation of national and international research on drivers in relation to both their actual importance as well as their policy relevance.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Mitigating the effects of climate change on the nests of sea turtles with artificial irrigation

For sea turtles, like many oviparous species, increasing temperatures during development threaten to increase embryonic mortality, alter offspring quality, and potentially create suboptimal primary sex ratios. Various methods are being implemented to mitigate the effects of climate change on reproductive success, but these methods, such as breeding programs, translocations, and shading, are often invasive and expensive. Irrigation is an alternative strategy for cooling nests that, depending on location, can be implemented relatively quickly and cheaply. However, multiple factors, including ambient conditions, nest substrate, and species characteristics, can influence irrigation success. Additionally, irrigation can vary in duration, frequency, and the volume of water applied to nests, which influences the cooling achieved and embryonic survival. Thus, it is critical to understand how to maximize cooling and manage risks before implementing irrigation as a nest-cooling strategy. We reviewed the literature on nest irrigation to examine whether artificial irrigation is feasible as a population management tool. Key factors that affected cooling were the volume of water applied and the frequency of applications. Embryonic responses varied with species, ambient conditions, and the timing of irrigation during development. Nest inundation was the key risk to a successful irrigation regime. Future irrigation regimes must identify clear targets, either primary or adult sex ratios, that maximize population viability. Monitoring population responses and adjusting the irrigation regime in response to population characteristics will be critical. Most studies reported on the manipulation of only one or two variables, further research is required to understand how altering multiple factors in an irrigation regime influences the cooling achieved and embryonic responses.     

Positive and Negative Effects of a Threatened Parrotfish on Reef Ecosystems

Species that are strong interactors play disproportionately important roles in the dynamics of natural ecosystems. It has been proposed that their presence is necessary for positively shaping the structure and functioning of ecosystems. We evaluated this hypothesis using the case of the world's largest parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), a globally imperiled species. We used direct observation, animal tracking, and computer simulations to examine the diverse routes through which B. muricatum affects the diversity, dispersal, relative abundance, and survival of the corals that comprise the foundation of reef ecosystems. Our results suggest that this species can influence reef building corals in both positive and negative ways. Field observation and simulation outputs indicated that B. muricatum reduced the abundance of macroalgae that can outcompete corals, but they also feed directly on corals, decreasing coral abundance, diversity, and colony size. B. muricatum appeared to facilitate coral advancement by mechanically dispersing coral fragments and opening up bare space for coral settlement, but they also damaged adult corals and remobilized a large volume of potentially stressful carbonate sediment. The impacts this species has on reefs appears to be regulated in part by its abundance—the effects of B. muricatum were more intense in simulation scenarios populated with high densities of these fish. Observations conducted in regions with high and low predator (e.g., sharks) abundance generated results that are consistent with the hypothesis that these predators of B. muricatum may play a role in governing their abundance; thus, predation may modulate the intensity of the effects they have on reef dynamics. Overall our results illustrate that functionally unique and threatened species may not have universally positive impacts on ecosystems and that it may be necessary for environmental managers to consider the diverse effects of such species and the forces that mediate the strength of their influence. Efectos Positivos y Negativos de un Pez Loro Amenazado Sobre Ecosistemas Arrecifales     

Form-specific fragances fromOphrys insectifera L. (Orchidaceae) attract species of different pollinator genera. Evidence of sympatric speciation?

Two closely related forms ofOphrys insectifera were observed in the field to attract different pollinator species selectively.O. i. ssp.insectifera attracted males of two species ofArgogorytes (Sphecidae, Hymenoptera Aculeata) andO. i. ssp.aymoninii attractedAndrena combinata males (Andrenidae, Apoidea, Hymenoptera Aculeata). A third form,O. aff.i. ssp.insectifera, attracted none of these three species. Volatile compounds from flowers and inflorescences of the three forms (originating from Öland, Sweden, and Aveyron, France) were collected, using entrainment, enfleurage, and solvent extraction techniques, and identified by gas chromatography — mass spectrometry. Scent differences between the three forms were confirmed in the amounts of aliphatic hydrocarbons (C₁₁–C₁₉), methyl esters (C₁₄–C₁₈), short chain aliphatic 1-alcohols (C₆–C₁₂), and monoterpene alcohols (C₁₀).     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.