Sensitivity of mesquite shrubland CO2 exchange to precipitation in contrasting landscape settings

In semiarid ecosystems, physiography (landscape setting) may interact with woody-plant and soil microbe communities to constrain seasonal exchanges of material and energy at the ecosystem scale. In an upland and riparian shrubland, we examined the seasonally dynamic linkage between ecosystem CO2 exchange, woody-plant water status and photosynthesis, and soil respiration responses to summer rainfall. At each site, we compared tower-based measurements of net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) with ecophysiological measurements among velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina Woot.) in three size classes and soil respiration in sub-canopy and inter-canopy micro-sites. Monsoonal rainfall influenced a greater shift in the magnitude of ecosystem CO2 assimilation in the upland shrubland than in the riparian shrubland. Mesquite water status and photosynthetic gas exchange were closely linked to the onset of the North American monsoon in the upland shrubland. In contrast, the presence of shallow alluvial groundwater in the riparian shrubland caused larger size classes of mesquite to be physiologically insensitive to monsoonal rains. In both shrublands, soil respiration was greatest beneath mesquite canopies and was coupled to shallow soil moisture abundance. Physiography, through its constraint on the physiological sensitivity of deeply rooted woody plants, may interact with plant-mediated rates of soil respiration to affect the sensitivity of semiarid-ecosystem carbon exchange in response to episodic rainfall.     

Climatic/edaphic controls on soil carbon/nitrogen response to shrub encroachment in desert grassland.

The proliferation of woody plants in grasslands over the past 100+ years can alter carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles and influence land surface-atmosphere interactions. Although the majority of organic carbon in these ecosystems resides belowground, there is no consensus on how this change in land cover has affected soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) pools. The degree to which duration of woody plant occupation, climate, and edaphic conditions have mediated SOC and TN responses to changes in life-form composition are poorly understood. We addressed these issues at a desert grassland site in Arizona, USA, where the leguminous shrub velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina) has proliferated along an elevation/precipitation/temperature gradient and on contrasting soil morphologic surfaces. On sandy loam complexes of mid-Holocene origin, mean SOC and TN of soils in the grassland matrix increased approximately 68% and approximately 45%, respectively, with increasing elevation. Soil organic carbon pools were comparable and TN pools were approximately 23% higher in Pleistocene-aged clay loam complexes co-occurring with Holocene-aged soils at the upper elevation/climatic zone. Across the site, belowground resources associated with large Prosopis plants were 21-154% (SOC) and 18-127% (TN) higher than those in the grassy matrix. The variance in SOC and TN pools accounted for by Prosopis stem size (a rough surrogate for time of site occupation) was highest at the low- and mid-elevation sites (69-74%) and lowest at the upper elevation site (32-38%). Soil delta15N values ranged from 5.5 per thousand to 6.7 per thousand across the soil/elevation zones but were comparable in herbaceous and shrub-impacted soils and exhibited a weak relationship with Prosopis basal stem diameter (r2 < 0.1) and TN (r2 < 0.08). The SOC delta13C values decreased linearly with increasing Prosopis basal diameter, suggesting that size and isotopic composition of the SOC pool is a function of time of Prosopis site occupation. Isotopic mixture models indicate that encroachment of C3 woody plants has also promoted SOC additions from C4 plant sources, indicative of long-term herbaceous facilitation. Grassy sites in contrasting soil/elevation combinations, initially highly distinctive in their SOC pool size and delta13C, appear to be converging on similar values following approximately 100 years of woody plant proliferation.     

Litter decomposition and nitrogen mineralization from an annual to a monthly model

The forest litter decomposition model (FLDM) described in this paper provides an important basis for assessing the impacts of forest management on seasonal stream water quality and export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). By definition, models with annual time steps are unable to capture seasonal, within-year variation. In order to simulate seasonal variation in litter decomposition and DOC production and export, we have modified an existing annual FLDM to account for monthly dynamics of decomposition and residual mass in experimental litterbags placed in 21 different forests across Canada.The original annual FLDM was formulated with three main litter pools (fast, slow, and very slow decomposing litter) to address the fact that forest litter is naturally composed of a mixture of organic compounds that decompose at different rates. The annual FLDM was shown to provide better simulations than more complex models like CENTURY and SOMM.The revised monthly model retains the original structure of the annual FLDM, but separates litter decomposition from nitrogen (N) mineralization. In the model, monthly soil temperature, soil moisture, and mean January soil temperature are shown to be the most important controlling variables of within-year variation in decomposition. Use of the three variables in a process-based definition of litter decomposition is a significant departure from the empirical definition in the annual model. The revised model is shown to give similar calculations of residual mass and N concentration as the annual model (r² = 0.91, 0.78), despite producing very different timeseries of decomposition over six years. It is shown from a modelling perspective that (i) forest litter decomposition is independent of N mineralization, whereas N mineralization is dependent on litter decomposition, and (ii) mean January soil temperature defines litter decomposition in the summer because of winter-temperatures’ role in modifying forest-floor microorganism community composition and functioning in the following summer.     

Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas

Woody encroachment is a widespread and acute phenomenon affecting grasslands and savannas worldwide. We performed a meta-analysis of 29 studies from 13 different grassland/savanna communities in North America to determine the consequences of woody encroachment on plant species richness. In all 13 communities, species richness declined with woody plant encroachment (average decline = 45%). Species richness declined more in communities with higher precipitation (r2 = 0.81) and where encroachment was associated with a greater change in annual net primary productivity (ANPP; r2 = 0.69). Based on the strong positive correlation between precipitation and ANPP following encroachment (r2 = 0.87), we hypothesize that these relationships occur because water-limited woody plants experience a greater physiological and demographic release as precipitation increases. The observed relationship between species richness and ANPP provides support for the theoretical expectation that a trade-off occurs between richness and productivity in herbaceous communities. We conclude that woody plant encroachment leads to significant declines in species richness in North American grassland/savanna communities.     

不同植被对工业污染区盐渍土的改良效果

以包头市西郊工业污染区盐渍化弃耕地为对象，研究了不同植被对土壤水盐动态和体积质量的影响。研究表明，造林后使林地内草本植物得到较快恢复，且归还土壤的枯落物比木本植物多，改良盐渍土壤和促进脱盐的作用较好；随植被盖度增加，盐渍土土壤含盐量和体积质量降低，盐渍土性状逐步改善。因此，在实施以耐盐树种造林为先导的工业污染区盐渍土恢复植被工程时，应适当降低造林密度，以利于林地内草本植物的恢复和建立林草复合植被，提高工业污染区盐渍土的生物治理效果。     

Experimental tree removal in tallgrass prairie: variable responses of flora and fauna along a woody cover gradient

Woody plant encroachment is a worldwide phenomenon in grassland and savanna systems whose consequence is often the development of an alternate woodland state. Theoretically, an alternate state may be associated with changes in system state variables (e.g., species composition) or abiotic parameter shifts (e.g., nutrient availability). When state-variable changes are cumulative, such as in woody plant encroachment, the probability of parameter shifts increases as system feedbacks intensify over time. Using a Before-After Control-Impact (BACI) design, we studied eight pairs of grassland sites undergoing various levels of eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) encroachment to determine whether responses of flora and fauna to experimental redcedar removal differed according to the level of pretreatment redcedar cover. In the first year after removal, herbaceous plant species diversity and evenness, woody plant evenness, and invertebrate family richness increased linearly with pretreatment redcedar cover, whereas increases in small-mammal diversity and evenness were described by logarithmic trends. In contrast, increases in woody plant diversity and total biomass of terrestrial invertebrates were accentuated at levels of higher pretreatment cover. Tree removal also shifted small-mammal species composition toward a more grassland-associated assemblage. During the second year postremoval, increases in herbaceous plant diversity followed a polynomial trend, but increases in most other metrics did not vary along the pretreatment cover gradient. These changes were accompanied by extremely high growing-season precipitation, which may have homogenized floral and faunal responses to removal. Our results demonstrate that tree removal increases important community metrics among grassland flora and fauna within two years, with some responses to removal being strongly influenced by the stage of initial encroachment and modulated by climatic variability. Our results underscore the importance of decisive management for reversing the effects of woody plant encroachment in imperiled grassland ecosystems.     

Effects of soil nematodes communities on litter decomposition in urban forest of Dalian北大核心CSCD

In order to further expound the effect of soil nematodes on litter decomposition in urban forest, this study investigated the responses of soil nematodes communities to litter decomposition by litterbags technology at different mesh sizes in Dalian National Forest Park. Soil nematodes community composition, decomposition rate of litter and nutrient release were also analyzed. It found a total of 4 418 nematodes from 39 genera. Higher relative density of soil nematodes was found in the bags with 0.1 mm mesh size (1.55 individuals and 7.34 orders per g of dry litter) compared to the bags with 0.02 mm mesh size (0.21 individuals and 0.49 orders per g of dry litter). There were very few soil nematodes in the 0.02 mm litter bags. Thus we regarded that soil nematodes only affected the 0.1 mm litter bags. The mass loss rates as well as C and P release rates was higher in litter bags with 0.1 mm mesh size than in those with 0.02 mm mesh size, indicating a significant influence of soil nematodes on mass loss and nutrient release. The contribution of soil nematodes to the litter mass loss was about 24%. The effect of soil nematodes on the nutrient release rates differed among elements. The soil nematodes had a bigger influence on the release rate of N than that of other elements, whereas the influence on K release rate was the lowest. The results showed that soil nematodes communities has a significant effect on the litter decomposition and nutrient release of the forest litter in Dalian city, especially promoting the mass loss rates and N release rates.     

The impact of the invasive shrub Lonicera maackii on the decomposition dynamics of a native plant community

Invasive plants may have variable effects within a given environment depending on their interactions with the dominant native species, yet little research has examined such species-species interactions within a site. Savanna trees with nonoverlapping canopies offer an ideal opportunity to assess associated changes in the ecosystem processes that result from interactions between an invasive species and different native tree species. We examined the influence of the exotic invasive shrub Lonicera maackii on decomposition dynamics under three native tree species: Fraxinus quadrangulata, Quercus muehlenbergii, and Carya ovata. Litter decomposition rates and litter C and N were evaluated over two years using single- and mixed-species litterbags (L. maackii and individual tree species litter); microarthropod abundance was measured at 6 weeks using Tulgren funnels. Litter from the invasive L. maackii decomposed and lost N more rapidly than the litter of the three native tree species. The rate at which L. maackii decomposed depended on its location, with L. maackii litter decomposing and losing N more rapidly under C. ovata than under the other two native tree species. Mixing L. maackii with the native species' litter did not accelerate litter mass loss overall but did result in synergistic N losses at variable times throughout the experiment, further highlighting the variable interaction between native species and L. maackii. Nitrogen loss was significantly higher than expected in mixtures of C. ovata + L. maackii litter at 6 weeks, in F. quadrangulata + L. maackii litter at 12 weeks, and in Q. muehlenbergii + L. maackii litter at 24 weeks. If the effects of invasive species on certain ecosystem processes, such as litter decomposition, are strongly influenced by their association with native species, this could suggest the need for a more nuanced understanding of the vulnerability of ecosystem processes to invasions of L. maackii and potentially other invasive species.     

Bromus tectorum invasion alters nitrogen dynamics in an undisturbed arid grassland ecosystem

The nonnative annual grass Bromus tectorum has successfully replaced native vegetation in many arid and semiarid ecosystems. Initial introductions accompanied grazing and agriculture, making it difficult to separate the effects of invasion from physical disturbance. This study examined N dynamics in two recently invaded, undisturbed vegetation associations (C3 and C4). The response of these communities was compared to an invaded/ disturbed grassland. The invaded/disturbed communities had higher surface NH4+ input in spring, whereas there were no differences for surface input of NO3-. Soil inorganic N was dominated by NH4+, but invaded sites had greater subsurface soil NO3-. Invaded sites had greater total soil N at the surface four years post-invasion in undisturbed communities, but total N was lower in the invaded/disturbed communities. Soil delta15N increased with depth in the noninvaded and recently invaded communities, whereas the invaded/disturbed communities exhibited the opposite pattern. Enriched foliar delta15N values suggest that Bromus assimilated subsurface NO3-, whereas the native grasses were restricted to surface N. A Rayleigh distillation model accurately described decomposition patterns in the noninvaded communities where soil N loss is accompanied by increasing soil delta15N; however, the invaded/ disturbed communities exhibited the opposite pattern, suggesting redistribution of N within the soil profile. This study suggests that invasion has altered the mechanisms driving nitrogen dynamics. Bromus litter decomposition and soil NO3- concentrations were greater in the invaded communities during periods of ample precipitation, and NO3- leached from the surface litter, where it was assimilated by Bromus. The primary source of N input in these communities is a biological soil crust that is removed with disturbance, and the lack of N input by the biological soil crust did not balance N loss, resulting in reduced total N in the invaded/disturbed communities. Bromus produced a positive feedback loop by leaching NO3- from decomposing Bromus litter to subsurface soil layers, accessing that deepsoil N pool with deep roots and returning that N to the surface as biomass and subsequent litter. Lack of new inputs combined with continued loss will result in lower total soil N, evidenced by the lower total soil N in the invaded/disturbed communities.     

Tree species effects on decomposition and forest floor dynamics in a common garden

We studied the effects of tree species on leaf litter decomposition and forest floor dynamics in a common garden experiment of 14 tree species (Abies alba, Acer platanoides, Acer pseudoplatanus, Betula pendula, Carpinus betulus, Fagus sylvatica, Larix decidua, Picea abies, Pinus nigra, Pinus sylvestris, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus robur, Quercus rubra, and Tilia cordata) in southwestern Poland. We used three simultaneous litter bag experiments to tease apart species effects on decomposition via leaf litter chemistry vs. effects on the decomposition environment. Decomposition rates of litter in its plot of origin were negatively correlated with litter lignin and positively correlated with mean annual soil temperature (MAT(soil)) across species. Likewise, decomposition of a common litter type across all plots was positively associated with MAT(soil), and decomposition of litter from all plots in a common plot was negatively related to litter lignin but positively related to litter Ca. Taken together, these results indicate that tree species influenced microbial decomposition primarily via differences in litter lignin (and secondarily, via differences in litter Ca), with high-lignin (and low-Ca) species decomposing most slowly, and by affecting MAT(soil), with warmer plots exhibiting more rapid decomposition. In addition to litter bag experiments, we examined forest floor dynamics in each plot by mass balance, since earthworms were a known component of these forest stands and their access to litter in litter bags was limited. Forest floor removal rates estimated from mass balance were positively related to leaf litter Ca (and unrelated to decay rates obtained using litter bags). Litter Ca, in turn, was positively related to the abundance of earthworms, particularly Lumbricus terrestris. Thus, while species influence microbially mediated decomposition primarily through differences in litter lignin, differences among species in litter Ca are most important in determining species effects on forest floor leaf litter dynamics among these 14 tree species, apparently because of the influence of litter Ca on earthworm activity. The overall influence of these tree species on leaf litter decomposition via effects on both microbial and faunal processing will only become clear when we can quantify the decay dynamics of litter that is translocated belowground by earthworms.     

杉木林凋落物产量、分解率与储量的关系

在福建三明采用2种方法测定27a生杉木林的杉木叶和小枝凋落物的分解率．采用网袋法(孔径0．5mm尼龙网袋)测定的杉木叶和小枝凋落物残留率Olson指数模型的分解系数(k值)分别为0．7692a^-1和0．2501a^-1，相应的第1年的分解率分别为53．66％和22．13％；另一种测定矗值的方法较为准确，是通过计算凋落物年产量与地面凋落物储量的比值得到，采用该方法计算的杉木叶和小枝凋落物的矗值分别为1．788a^-1和0．8622a^-1，分别是网袋法测定值的2．32和3．54倍，相应的第1年的分解率分别为83．27％和57．78％，分别是网袋法测定值的1．55倍和2．61倍．采用后一种方法测定的凋落物分解率可以解决尼龙网袋法测定分解速率结果偏低的问题．     

Characteristics of soil fauna community in the decomposition of Deyeuxia arundinacea litters北大核心CSCD

This study aimed to understand the soil fauna characteristics during the litter decomposition process of perennial herb Deyeuxia arundinacea. The litters were put in 6-, 30-, and 260-mesh litterbags to investigate their mass loss and the dynamics of soil faunal community during Aug. 2013 to Jul. 2014. Faster decomposition rate of Deyeuxia arundinacea in different meshes was found in the early period than in mid- and end-periods. Among different mesh sizes, 6-mesh had the fastest decomposition rate, followed by 30-mesh and 260-mesh. A total of 2218 individuals of soil fauna were obtained in different meshes, with 958, 737 and 523 individuals in 30-, 260- and 6-mesh respectively. Oribatida and Poduridae were the dominant groups, accounting for 73.22% of total individuals. The soil animal individual and group densities shared a very similar trend among the decomposition bags of three aperture sizes, all with obvious characteristics of seasonal dynamic distribution. During the 12 months of decomposition, the density of soil animal groups did not show significant difference between the 6 mesh and 260 mesh decomposition bags except for May. Correlation analysis showed that the group density was highly significantly correlated with average monthly temperature and rainfall, and the individual density significantly correlated with the average monthly temperature. The results indicated that the structure and diversity of soil fauna community of Deyeuxia arundinacea are influenced by hydrothermal conditions. The findings help in understanding the effect of soil fauna to perennial herb litter decomposition.     

Vallisneria natans decomposition rates and associated macroinvertebrates,microbes and microalgae along a vertical depth gradient in an urban lake (Nanhu Lake,China)

Knowledge on aquatic macrophyte decomposition has well developed, yet the decomposition and associated biotic factors along a vertical gradient in waters remain less examined. Here, we used Vallianeria natans leaves to investigate the decomposition rate and associated decomposers and microalgae at different vertical depths, by placing V. natans leaves into litterbags (0.5 and 5?mm meshes) and incubating them at the air–water interface (AW), sediment-water (SW) interface, and 10?cm (B10) or 20?cm (B20) burial in sediment over 60 days in a littoral zone of lake. Decomposition rates decreased with increased depths in each mesh size, with significant differences among and between AW (0.028?d^?1), SW (0.022?d^?1), B10 (0.014?d^?1) and B20 (0.011?d^?1) treatments in 0.5?mm litterbags and no significant difference between B10 (0.027?d^?1) and B20 (0.025?d^?1) in 5?mm litterbags. The average contribution of macroinvertebrates to biomass loss was highest in B20 (44.66%), lowest in AW (22.66%) and midst in both SW (25.35%) and B10 (38.78%), and was much less than that of both microbes and microalgae at each location. We show the importance of macroinvertebrates, microbes and microalgae in mediating macrophyte decomposition rate in response to different vertical locations in freshwaters.     

Effects of different mobilities of leaf and woody litters on litter carbon dynamics in arid ecosystems in Western Australia

Afforestation of arid land is a promising countermeasure against global warming. We had previously found, through modeling and mass balance analyses of an arid land afforestation experimental project in Western Australia, that a significant amount of litter could have been physically removed from the floors of natural forests. In order to analyze litter carbon dynamics in depth, we investigated the actual mobility of litter in several natural forests in Sturt Meadows in an arid region of Western Australia, and estimated the difference between the removal rate of leaf and woody (twigs and branches) litter on the forest floor. Then we redeveloped a litter carbon dynamics model by incorporating physical removal of litter to show the different mobilities of leaf and woody litters. We also analyzed carbon balances and the effect of differential litter mobility on litter carbon dynamics. Except for twigs in one plot in a high density forest, 29–100% of leaf litter and 10–100% of woody litter was removed annually, demonstrating the physical removal of litter in these natural forests. The main cause of litter removal was wind, not flooding. Decreases in leaf and woody litters could be approximated as first order decay functions in most plots; first order decay or disappearance rate constants were then determined. Estimated disappearance rate constants of leaf and woody litter ranged from 0.19 to 11 and 0.11–12 year⁻¹, respectively; most of the constants ranged from 0.19 to 2.0 and 0.11–0.74 year⁻¹, respectively. Based on the disappearance rate constant, the mobility of woody litter was estimated to be roughly 20% that of leaf litter, confirming that climatic factors move leaves more easily than twigs. The improved model, which took into account the different mobilities of leaf and woody litters, showed that annual physical removal of litter reached 70–82% of the annual litter fall in Acacia aneura forests, and that roughly 40–60% of the existing litter was removed annually from all sites. Incorporating into the model the difference in mobilities of leaf and woody litters showed that the ratio of annual litter removal to annual litter fall increased about 10% points compared with the assumption of that both litter types had equal mobility.     

Setbacks to shoot growth are common in woody plants, so how are shoots of some species safer than others?

Tissue turnover is a critical facet of plant life history variation. This study quantifies losses from setbacks to growth of terminal woody shoots 1.2m long, across 83 species and seven sites in eastern Australia. Setbacks, where the leading meristem had been removed or died and a new leader had emerged, were common (median three per shoot). Shoots had lost an average of 0.25 m of lead-stem length for 1.2 m net shoot-length gain. Insects like girdlers and borers were prominent causes of large setbacks. The sites spanned tropical to temperate and humid to semiarid climates, but variation in stem loss was much greater across species than across sites. We measured 17 plant functional traits related to growth form, mechanics, hydraulics, and economics. Only four traits were correlated with variation across species in stem losses: stem diameter, stem nitrogen content, bark thickness, and maximum photosynthetic rate. The correlations were weak. Stem specific gravity (wood density) showed no correlation with risk. Our results suggest a pattern similar to the growth risk trade-off known for herbaceous plants, where traits associated with fast growth increase tissue turnover and herbivory, but the weak correlations leave ample scope for other influences that remain to be identified.     

Nonadditive effects among threats on rare plant species

The current loss of biodiversity has put 50,000 plant species at an elevated risk of extinction worldwide. Conserving at-risk species is often complicated by covariance or nonadditivity among threats, which makes it difficult to determine optimal management strategies. We sought to demographically quantify covariance and nonadditive effects of more threats on more rare plant species than ever attempted in a single analysis. We used 1082 population reports from 186 populations across 3 U.S. states of 27 rare, herbaceous plant species collected over 15 years by citizen scientists. We used a linear mixed-effects model with 4 threats and their interactions as fixed predictors, species as a random predictor, and annual growth rates as the response. We found a significant 3-way interaction on annual growth rates; rare plant population sizes were reduced by 46% during the time immediately after disturbance when populations were also browsed by deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and had high levels of encroachment by woody species. This nonadditive effect should be considered a major threat to the persistence of rare plant species. Our results highlight the need for comprehensive, multithreat assessments to determine optimal conservation actions.     

深圳福田秋茄红树林生态系统碳循环的初步研究

滨海红树林的生产力极高,在全球碳循环中占有重要地位,但是其碳循环的系统测定却鲜见报道。以深圳福田秋茄林为研究对象,2011年4月-2012年4月对内滩天然林、中滩和外滩人工林的植被、凋落物、粗木质残体、土壤的碳密度和净增量,以及植被和土壤呼吸进行了实际观测,并探讨了土壤有机碳来源,初步构建了秋茄林沿不同滩位的生态系统碳循环模式。结果表明,深圳福田秋茄林的碳密度在234.58～694.46 t.hm^-2之间,其中植被碳密度为44.54～239.51 t.hm^-2,凋落物和粗木质残体碳密度为2.02～24.56 t.hm^-2,土壤碳密度（深度为50 cm）为188.02～430.39 t.hm^-2,生态系统碳密度整体上表现为自内滩向外滩降低的趋势。在研究时段内,3个滩位的植被碳密度净增量为4.31～13.28 t.hm^-2.a^-1,凋落物和土壤碳密度没有显著变化。红树林的凋落物生成量为2.17～10.55 t.hm^-2.a^-1,约有49.94～94.01%通过食草动物、冲入海洋和腐烂分解等途径消耗。植被呼吸量为2.20～12.08 t.hm^-2.a^-1,土壤微生物的异氧呼吸量为0.25～1.61 t.hm^-2.a^-1,甲烷排放为0.09～0.31 t.hm^-2.a^-1,土壤有机碳输入约18.99%～44.43%来自植被内源输入,其余来源于海洋碳输入。生态系统的总初级生产力介于8.68～35.91t.hm^-2.a^-1之间,约有47.38%～74.08%转变为净初级生产力（6.48～23.84 t.hm^-2.a^-1）。碳平衡分析表明,在研究时段内,内滩的天然林是个很大的碳汇,约20.08 t.hm^-2.a^-1,中滩和外滩的人工林碳汇量分别为9.98 t.hm^-2.a^-1和4.03 t.hm^-2.a^-1。相对于陆地森林,秋茄红树林有着显著的碳汇效益,在全球碳循环中起着不可忽视的作用。     

Woody plants in grasslands: post-encroachment stand dynamics

Woody plant abundance is widely recognized to have increased in savannas and grasslands worldwide. The lack of information on the rates, dynamics, and extent of increases in shrub abundance is a major source of uncertainty in assessing how this vegetation change has influenced biogeochemical cycles. Projecting future consequences of woody cover change on ecosystem function will require knowledge of where shrub cover in present-day stands lies relative to the realizable maximum for a given soil type within a bioclimatic region. We used time-series aerial photography (1936, 1966, and 1996) and field studies to quantify cover and biomass of velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina Woot.) following its proliferation in a semidesert grassland of Arizona. Mapping of individual shrubs indicated an encroachment phase characterized by high rates of bare patch colonization. Upon entering a stabilization phase, shrub cover increases associated with recruitment and canopy expansion were largely offset by contractions in canopy area of other shrub patches. Instances of shrub disappearance coincided with a period of below-average rainfall (1936-1966). Overall, shrub cover (mean +/- SE) on sandy uplands with few and widely scattered shrubs in 1902 was dynamically stable over the 1936-1996 period averaging approximately 35% +/- 5%. Shrub cover on clayey uplands in 1936 was 17% +/- 2% but subsequently increased twofold to levels comparable to those on sandy uplands by 1966 (36% +/- 7%). Cover on both soils then decreased slightly between 1966 and 1996 to 28% +/- 3%. Thus, soil properties influenced the rate at which landscapes reached a dynamic equilibrium, but not the apparent endpoint. Although sandy and clayey landscapes appear to have stabilized at comparable levels of cover, shrub biomass was 1.4 times greater on clayey soils. Declines in shrub cover between 1966 and 1996 were accompanied by a shift to smaller patch sizes on both sandy and clayey landscapes. Dynamics observed during the stabilization phase suggest that density-dependent regulation may be in play. If woody cover has transitioned from directional increases to a dynamic equilibrium, biomass projections will require monitoring and modeling patch dynamics and stand structure rather than simply changes in total cover.     

Modeling water and soil quality environmental impacts associated with bioenergy crop production and biomass removal in the Midwest USA

The removal of corn stover or production of herbaceous crops such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) or big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) as feedstocks for bioenergy purposes has been shown to have significant benefits from an energy and climate change perspective. There is potential, however, to adversely impact water and soil quality, especially in the United States Corn Belt where stover removal predominantly occurs and possibly in other areas with herbaceous energy crops depending upon a number of geo-climatic and economic factors. The overall goal of this research was to provide a thorough and mechanistic understanding of the relationship between stover and herbaceous crop production management practices and resulting range of impacts on soil and water quality, with a focus on eastern Iowa, USA. Comparisons of the production of herbaceous bioenergy crops to continuous corn (Zea mays L.) and corn-soybean (Glycine max L.) rotations on five different soils representative of the region were performed. Indices for total nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) loss to surface water and groundwater, total soil loss due to water and wind erosion, and cumulative soil carbon loss were derived to assess long-term sustainability. The Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender (APEX) agroecosystem model was used to quantify the sustainability indices and to generate sufficient data to provide a greater understanding of variables that affect water and soil quality than previously possible. The results clearly show the superiority of herbaceous crop production from a soil and water quality perspective. They also show, however, that compared to traditional cropping systems (e.g., corn-soybean rotations with conventional tillage), soil and water quality degradation can be reduced under certain conditions at the same time stover is removed.