Inconsistent definitions of "urban" result in different conclusions about the size of urban carbon and nitrogen stocks

There is conflicting evidence about the importance of urban soils and vegetation in regional C budgets that is caused, in part, by inconsistent definitions of "urban" land use. We quantified urban ecosystem contributions to C stocks in the Boston (Massachusetts, USA) Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) using several alternative urban definitions. Development altered aboveground and belowground C and N stocks, and the sign and magnitude of these changes varied by land use and development intensity. Aboveground biomass (live trees, dbh > or = 5 cm) for the MSA was 7.2 +/- 0.4 kg C/m2 (mean +/- SE), reflecting a high proportion of forest cover. Vegetation C was highest in forest (11.6 +/- 0.5 kg C/m2), followed by residential (4.6 +/- 0.5 kg C/m2), and then other developed (2.0 +/- 0.4 kg C/m2) land uses. Soil C (0-10 cm depth) followed the same pattern of decreasing C concentration from forest, to residential, to other developed land uses (4.1 +/- 0.1, 4.0 +/- 0.2, and 3.3 +/- 0.2 kg C/m2, respectively). Within a land use type, urban areas (which we defined as > 25% impervious surface area [ISA] within a 1-km(2) moving window) generally contained less vegetation C, but slightly more soil C, than nonurban areas. Soil N concentrations were higher in urban areas than nonurban areas of the same land use type, except for residential areas, which had similarly high soil N concentrations. When we compared our definition of urban to other commonly used urban extents (U.S. Census Bureau, Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project [GRUMP], and the MSA itself), we found that urban soil (1 m depth) and vegetation C stocks spanned a wide range, from 14.4 +/- 0.8 to 54.5 +/- 3.4 Tg C and from 4.2 +/- 0.4 to 27.3 +/- 3.2 Tg C, respectively. Conclusions about the importance of urban soils and vegetation to regional C and N stocks are very sensitive to the definition of urban used by the investigators. Urban areas, regardless of definition, are rapidly expanding in their extent; a systematic understanding of how our development patterns influence ecosystems is necessary to inform future development choices.     

人工封闭对城市土壤功能的影响研究进展

随着全球城市化的快速发展,城市生态系统研究已受到人们的广泛关注。土壤作为城市生态系统的一个重要组成单位与功能载体,其功能与质量已受到城市化的冲击和影响。由人类活动（如房屋建筑、道路建设等）引起的土壤封闭是城市土壤的一个重要特征。与自然土壤封闭相比,人工封闭土壤严重地阻碍了城市土壤与外界环境的物质能量交换,限制了土壤功能的实现,成为导致土壤质量退化的重要因素。研究人工封闭对城市土壤功能的影响有利于更全面认识城市化的生态环境效应。本文介绍了城市土壤人工封闭的概念、主要特点及其与传统自然土壤封闭的异同;综述了人工封闭对城市土壤水分运动、土壤与环境间气体与能量交换、生物多样性与行为以及粮食安全影响等方面取得的研究进展。目前城市封闭土壤研究仍处于起步阶段,仅在个别城市开展过相关研究,且主要围绕人工封闭对城市环境与土壤的表观影响,对封闭后土壤性质的变化及其机制研究仍很缺乏。未来仍需在更多城市开展系统调查以获取基础数据,需着重研究城市封闭土壤中污染物的赋存、迁移、转化,封闭后土壤碳氮固持能力的变化,以及土壤微生物性质的变化,同时要创新研究方式和研究方法,为加强城市生态系统研究、实现城市可持续发展提供科学依据。     

Nitrate production and availability in residential soils

The rapid increase in residential land area in the United States has raised concern about water pollution associated with nitrogen fertilizers. Nitrate (NO3-) is the form of reactive N that is most susceptible to leaching and runoff; thus, a more thorough understanding of nitrification and NO3(-) availability is needed if we are to accurately predict the consequences of residential expansion for water quality. In particular, there have been few assessments of how the land use history, housing density, and age of residential soils influence NO3(-) pools and fluxes, especially at depth. In this study, we used 1 m deep soil cores to evaluate potential net nitrification and mineralization, microbial respiration and biomass, and soil NO3(-) and NH4+ pools in 32 residential home lawns that differed by previous land use and age, but had similar soil types. These were compared to eight forested reference sites with similar soils. Our results suggest that a change to residential land use has increased pools and production of reactive N, which has clear implications for water quality in the region. However, the results contradict the common assumption that NO3(-) production and availability is dramatically higher in residential soils than in forests in general. While net nitrification (128.6 +/- 15.5 mg m(-2) d(-1) vs. 4.7 +/- 2.3 mg m(-2) d(-1); mean +/- SE) and exchangeable NO3(-) (3.8 +/- 0.5 g/m2 vs. 0.7 +/- 0.3 g/m2) were significantly higher in residential soils than in forest soils in this study, these measures of NO3(-) production and availability were still notably low, comparable to deciduous forest stands in other studies. A second unexpected result was that current homeowner management practices were not predictive of NO3(-) availability or production. This may reflect the transient availability of inorganic N after fertilizer application. Higher housing density and a history of agricultural land use were predictors of greater NO3(-) availability in residential soils. If these factors are good predictors across a wider range of sites, they may be useful indicators of NO3(-) availability and leaching and runoff potential at the landscape scale.     

Determining soil quality in urban agricultural regions by soil enzyme-based index

Urban agricultural soils are highly variable, and careful selection of sensitive indicators is needed for the assessment of soil quality. This study is proposed to develop an index based on soil enzyme activities for assessing the quality of urban agricultural soils. Top soils were collected from urban agricultural areas of Korea, and soil chemical properties, texture, microbial fatty acids, and enzyme activities were determined. The soils belonged to five textural classes with the highest frequency of sandy loam. There was no clear correlation between the soil chemical properties and soil microbial properties. Principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis were applied to microbial groups for identification of microbial community variation in soils. Two soil groups, namely group 1 (G1) and group 2 (G2), based on microbial community abundance were examined by PCA, and those were more prominent in factor analysis. The G1 soils showed higher microbial community abundance than G2 soils. The canonical discriminant analysis was applied to the enzyme activities of sandy loam soil to develop an index, and the index validation was confirmed using the unused soils and published data. The high-quality soils in published literature assigned the high valued index. Microbial fatty acids and soil enzyme activities can be suitable indicators for soil quality evaluation of urban agricultural soils.

     

中国城市土壤重金属污染研究现状及对策

中国城市土壤重金属污染的主要来源是工业“三废”排放，金属采矿和冶炼，家庭燃煤，生活垃圾，汽车尾气排放。重金属在城市土壤中的分布规律表现为城市土壤重金属含量高于郊区，人类活动密集区和交通拥挤区重金属含量较高；人类活动的干扰导致土壤剖面重金属污染特征不明显。应采取预防与治理相结合的措施综合控制土壤重金属污染，并加紧制定我国的城市土壤健康评价标准。     

Assessment of metal contamination in soil banks of the Rhumel wadi (Northeast Algeria)

Levels of six trace metals were assessed in bank soils of the Rhumel wadi (Northeast Algeria) and their association with soil properties was investigated. Samples were collected at 10 sites. The soils are neutral to moderately alkaline, have high contents of carbonate, and are low in organic carbon and clay. Mean metal concentrations are 1.1 (Cd), 63 (Cr), 20 (Cu), 26 (Ni), 31 (Pb), and 98 (Zn) mg kg^?1. The Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn contents in soil from sites closest to Constantine City were higher than in uncontaminated soils worldwide, indicating accumulation due to human activities (residential, industrial, and agricultural). Statistical analyses (correlation and principal component analysis) demonstrated that Cd, Pb, and Zn are of anthropogenic origin in the urban areas, whereas Cr and Cu enrichment in some situations is caused by industrial activities, while Ni was geogenic.     

Urbanization increases grassland carbon pools: effects of landscaping in Colorado's front range.

During the past few decades, urban and suburban developments have grown at unprecedented rates and extents with unknown consequences for ecosystem function. Carbon pools of soil and vegetation on landscaped properties were examined in the Front Range of Colorado, USA, in order to characterize vegetation and soils found in urban green spaces; analyze their aboveground biomass, vegetative C storage, and soil C storage; and compare these suburban ecosystem properties to their counterparts in native grassland and cultivated fields. Anthropogenic activities leave clear signatures on all three C compartments measured. Management level dominates the response of grass production, biomass, and N tissue concentration. This, in turn, influences the amount of C and N both stored in and harvested from sites. The site age dominates the amount of woody biomass as well as soil C and N. Soil texture only secondarily affects total soil carbon and total bulk density. Established urban green spaces harbor larger C pools, more than double in some cases, than native grasslands or agricultural fields on a per-area basis. Lawn grass produces more biomass and stores more C than local prairie or agricultural fields. Introduced woody vegetation comprises a substantial C pool in urban green spaces and represents a new ecosystem feature. After an initial decrease with site development, soil organic carbon (SOC) pools surpass those in grasslands within two decades. In addition to the marked increase of C pools through time, a shift in storage from belowground to aboveground occurs. Whereas grasslands store approximately 90% of C belowground, urban green spaces store a decreasing proportion of the total C belowground in soils through time, reaching approximately 70% 30-40 years after construction. Despite the substantial increase in C pools in this urban area, it is important to recognize that this shift is distinct from C sequestration since it does not account for a total C budget, including increased anthropogenic C emissions from these sites.     

Nitrogen budget and its environmental loading in an urban ecosystem with the rapid urbanisation of China

A detailed nitrogen (N) budget has been developed for an urban ecosystem based on the method of material flow analysis. How increased human activity and urbanisation influences N cycling have also been analysed. Total N input and output in the urban ecosystem of Zhengzhou City (ZUE) was calculated at 304.8?Gg was 275.3?Gg year^?1, resulting in an N accumulation of 29.5?Gg year^?1. Industry and human life activities, which respectively accounted for 43.8% and 34.2% of total N inputs and 52.6% and 29.1% of total N outputs, were the core of N flow in the urban ecosystem. Humans activities mediated more than 98% N inputs into the ZUE, 73.2% of N was released into the atmosphere and 11.7% into hydrosphere. This very large volume of released N could contribute to regional problems. High energy consumption, insufficient wastewater treatment facility practices, and low N use efficiency are the primary causes of pollution. The major challenge ahead for the urban ecosystem is how to manage high-intensity N pollutant inputs to the urban ecosystems coupled with incomplete N cycling and removal. Based on the analysis of the N budget and loading, this study also proposes an N management strategy for the ZUE.     

Evaluation and assessment of the efficacy of an abatement strategy in a former lead smelter community,Boolaroo, Australia

This study examines the recent soil Lead Abatement Strategy (LAS) in Boolaroo, New South Wales, Australia, that was designed to “achieve a reduction in human exposure to lead dust contamination in surface soils”. The abatement programme addressed legacy contamination of residential areas following closure of lead smelting operations in 2003 at the Pasminco Cockle Creek Smelter (PCCS). The principal objective of the LAS was to “cap and cover” lead-contaminated soils within the urban environment surrounding the PCCS. Soil lead concentrations of 2500–5000 mg/kg were scheduled for removal and replacement, while concentrations between 1500 and 2500 mg/kg were replaced only under limited circumstances. To date, there has been no industry, government or independent assessment of the clean-up programme that involved >2000 homes in the township of Boolaroo. Thus, by measuring post-abatement soil lead concentrations in Boolaroo, this study addresses this knowledge gap and evaluates the effectiveness of the LAS for reducing the potential for lead exposure. Soil lead concentrations above the Australian residential soil health investigation level value for residential soils (300 mg/kg) were identified at all but one of the residential properties examined (n = 19). Vacuum dust samples (n = 17) from the same homes had a mean lead concentration of 495 mg/kg (median 380 mg/kg). Bio-accessibility testing revealed that lead in household vacuum dust was readily accessible (% bio-accessible) (mean = 92 %, median = 90 %), demonstrating that the risk of exposure via this pathway remains. Assessment of a limited number of properties (n = 8) where pre-abatement soil lead levels were available for comparison showed they were not statistically different to post-abatement. Although the LAS did not include treatment of non-residential properties, sampling of community areas including public sports fields, playgrounds and schools (n = 32) was undertaken to determine the contamination legacy in these areas. Elevated mean soil lead concentrations were found across public lands: sports fields = 5130 mg/kg (median = 1275 mg/kg), playgrounds and schools = 812 mg/kg (median = 920 mg/kg) and open space = 778 mg/kg (median = 620 mg/kg). Overall, the study results show that the LAS programme that was dominated by a “cap and cover” approach to address widespread lead contamination was inadequate for mitigating current and future risk of lead exposures.     

Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury in surface soils, Pueblo, Colorado: implications for population health risk

Decades of intensive industrial and agricultural practices as well as rapid urbanization have left communities like Pueblo, Colorado facing potential health threats from pollution of its soils, air, water and food supply. To address such concerns about environmental contamination, we conducted an urban geochemical study of the city of Pueblo to offer insights into the potential chemical hazards in soil and inform priorities for future health studies and population interventions aimed at reducing exposures to inorganic substances. The current study characterizes the environmental landscape of Pueblo in terms of heavy metals, and relates this to population distributions. Soil was sampled within the city along transects and analyzed for arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb). We also profiled Pueblo’s communities in terms of their socioeconomic status and demographics. ArcGIS 9.0 was used to perform exploratory spatial data analysis and generate community profiles and prediction maps. The topsoil in Pueblo contains more As, Cd, Hg and Pb than national soil averages, although average Hg content in Pueblo was within reported baseline ranges. The highest levels of As concentrations ranged between 56.6 and 66.5 ppm. Lead concentrations exceeded 300 ppm in several of Pueblo’s residential communities. Elevated levels of lead are concentrated in low-income Hispanic and African-American communities. Areas of excessively high Cd concentration exist around Pueblo, including low income and minority communities, raising additional health and environmental justice concerns. Although the distribution patterns vary by element and may reflect both industrial and non-industrial sources, the study confirms that there is environmental contamination around Pueblo and underscores the need for a comprehensive public health approach to address environmental threats in urban communities.     

干旱区绿洲灌漠土Cu、Zn和Pb的吸附解吸特征

土壤重金属吸附解吸是影响土壤系统中重金属移动性和归宿的主要过程,影响重金属的生物有效性以及重金属在食物链中的传递等.配制一系列不同浓度的重金属,灌漠土对重金属溶液进行吸附实验24 h以达到平衡,再用硝酸铵和乙酸铵进行解吸实验24 h以达到平衡.利用热力学吸附平衡法,对西北干旱区绿洲灌漠土重金属Cu、Ni和Pb的吸附解吸行为进行序批实验研究.实验结果表明:(1)灰漠土在常温下对铜、锌和铅重金属离子的吸附等温线符合Freundlich型吸附模式,灰漠土对重金属铜、锌和铅的吸附能力由强到弱的顺序为:铅,铜,锌.(2)硝酸铵和乙酸铵解吸重金属的量与灰漠土吸附重金属量呈现出线性正相关,乙酸铵解吸重金属的量比硝酸铵解吸重金属的量大,两种解吸剂对铜、锌和铅重金属离子的解吸能力由大到小的顺序都为:铜,锌,铅,说明了一般外源的铜、锌和铅进入土壤以后,铜和锌可能比铅容易向四周转移.(3)硝酸铵和乙酸铵的解吸率呈谷形曲线,开始时硝酸铵和乙酸铵解吸重金属量的百分比随灰漠土吸附重金属量的增加而减小,在吸附量达到某一特定值时,解吸率随吸附量的增加而增加.灰漠土对铜、锌和铅的吸附作用以专性吸附为主,被灰漠土吸附的铜、锌和铅重金属离子较难解吸.     

基于Landsat TM的澳门城市热场影响因素分析

利用2004年10月19日Landsat TM数据提取澳门城区城市用地类型信息,反演城市地表温度,在此基础上通过主成分回归方法分析澳门城市热场的影响因素.结果表明,澳门城市热场受到硬化地表指数的影响较大,其次为植被比例.地表温度与硬化地表指数、道路密度呈显著正相关(P＜0.05),与归一化植被指数、植被比例及水体比例呈显著负相关(P＜0.05).     

Assessment of bioaccessibility and exposure risk of arsenic and lead in urban soils of Guangzhou City,China

Soil ingestion is an important human exposure pathway of heavy metals in urban environments with heavy metal contaminated soils. This study aims to assess potential health risks of heavy metals in soils sampled from an urban environment where high frequency of human exposure may be present. A bioaccessibility test is used, which is an in vitro gastrointestinal (IVG) test of soluble metals under simulated physiological conditions of the human digestion system. Soil samples for assessing the oral bioaccessibility of arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) were collected from a diverse range of different land uses, including urban parks, roadsides, industrial sites and residential areas in Guangzhou City, China. The soil samples contained a wide range of total As (10.2 to 61.0 mg kg⁻¹) and Pb (38.4 to 348 mg kg⁻¹) concentrations. The bioaccessibility of As and Pb in the soil samples were 11.3 and 39.1% in the stomach phase, and 1.9 and 6.9% in the intestinal phase, respectively. The As and Pb bioaccessibility in the small intestinal phase was significantly lower than those in the gastric phase. Arsenic bioaccessibility was closely influenced by soil pH and organic matter content (r ² = 0.451, p < 0.01) in the stomach phase, and by organic matter, silt and total As contents (r ² = 0.604, p < 0.001) in the intestinal phase. The general risk of As and Pb intake for children from incidental ingestion of soils is low, compared to their maximum doses, without causing negative human health effects. The exposure risk of Pb in the soils ranked in the order of: industrial area/urban parks > residential area/road side. Although the risk of heavy metal exposure from direct ingestion of urban soils is relatively low, the risk of inhalation of fine soil particulates in the air remains to be evaluated.     

基于变化阶段特点的亚热带红壤硝化模式及其影响因素分析

在土壤最大持水量60%和温度30℃的实验室培养条件下,对采自江西的15个第三纪红砂岩母质发育的自然土壤（灌丛和林地）和农业利用土壤（茶园、旱地和水稻）进行了56 d实验室培养,研究了土壤NO3--N含量随时间的变化过程及阶段特点。结果显示,发生净硝化作用的14个土样NO3--N质量分数随时间的变化表现＂J＂型增长和＂S＂型增长2种模式。＂J＂型增长模式的6个土样,67%为自然土壤,其NO3--N质量分数增长具有15~35 d的延滞期,符合指数方程N=N0e kt（P〈0.001）,N0值与有效磷质量分数呈显著的指数关系（P〈0.05）。＂S＂型增长模式的8个土样,88%为农业利用土壤,NO3--N累积无明显延滞期,符合Logistic修正模型N=Np/（1＋e2.e-rt）（延滞期td=0,P〈0.001）,由模型获得的土样最大硝化速率vm与土壤全氮质量分数和全碳质量分数具有极显著的正相关关系（P〈0.001）,达到最大硝化速率所需的时间tm与风干土的NO3--N质量分数呈显著正相关（P〈0.05）。上述结果表明,农业利用措施,特别旱作种植可消除亚热带土壤硝化作用的延滞期,从而使铵态氮肥施入土壤后快速转化成为硝态氮,增大硝态氮淋失的风险。     

Hierarchical regulation of nitrogen export from urban catchments: interactions of storms and landscapes.

In urban catchments of arid central Arizona, we investigate how the export of mineral and organic nitrogen (N) in storm runoff is regulated by interactions between local landscape characteristics and broader scale storm features. First, we test whether N export is more a function of (1) processes that affect N concentration in runoff or (2) the propensity of the catchment to convey rainfall as runoff. With data pooled across catchments, the mass of N in export (load) is determined by processes regulating runoff N concentration. There are exceptions when catchments are examined individually, where N load from some catchments is determined by the hydrologic responsiveness of the catchment. Second, we investigate the relationship between N export and catchment features. Loads per catchment area were greater from more impervious catchments, probably because impervious catchments held more N in a mobilizable phase and conveyed more rainfall as overland flow. Loads per area were lower from larger catchments, possibly owing to more N-retention hot spots in larger catchments. Catchments with the greatest N exports were those with commercial land use, and loads decreased as development became less prevalent or as residential replaced industrial land use. Third, we investigated how catchment features moderated direct responses of N export to storms. Export was less correlated with storm features in catchments that were larger, more pervious, and less industrial. Results support an "N build and flush" hypothesis, which purports that there is little biotic processing of N deposited to arid, urban surfaces with little organic matter. The rate and duration of deposition determine the size of the mobile N pool. Any amount of rainfall capable of generating overland flow would entrain nearly all mobilizable N and export it from the catchment. Nonetheless, these results suggest that, even with daunting seasonal and interannual variability in storm conditions, material export can be reduced by managing intrinsic catchment features.     

Factors affecting HCH and DDT in soils around watersheds of Beijing reservoirs,China

The factors that influence the dynamics of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in soils around the watersheds of Beijing reservoirs were examined. Compared with other studies on HCH and DDT in soils and established reference values, the concentrations of HCH and DDT in soils around our study area were relatively low. The relationships between HCH and DDT concentrations and land use, soil texture, and soil properties were discussed. HCH and DDT concentrations were higher in arable soils than those in uncultivated fallow soils. Although land use was the most important factor affecting HCH and DDT residues, additional factors such as soil texture and soil total organic carbon were also involved in pesticide retention in soils. The results indicated that the historical agricultural applications of HCH and DDT were the major source of their residues. Atmospheric deposition, as well as long-distance transportation and inputs from surrounding weathered agricultural soils may also serve as important sources of HCH and DDT residues in the watersheds.     

徐州市城区绿地土壤的理化特性

以徐州市不同功能区的绿地土壤为研究对象,通过对徐州市三环路内4个城区土壤的理化性质与养分状况等指标进行分析,并与该地区自然土壤进行了对比,研究其变化的趋势。结果表明:该城区绿地土壤的容重较大,孔隙度和田间持水量少,有机质缺乏,养分含量不均,pH值呈上升趋势。另外从绿地类型上加以比较、分析,其各样区土壤理化性质优劣顺序为:生产绿地〉公园广场绿地〉居民小区绿地〉道路交通绿地。     

Climate change effects on an endemic-rich edaphic flora: resurveying Robert H. Whittaker's Siskiyou sites (Oregon, USA)

Species with relatively narrow niches, such as plants restricted (endemic) to particular soils, may be especially vulnerable to extinction under a changing climate due to the enhanced difficulty they face in migrating to suitable new sites. To test for community-level effects of climate change, and to compare such effects in a highly endemic-rich flora on unproductive serpentine soils vs. the flora of normal (diorite) soils, in 2007 we resampled as closely as possible 108 sites originally studied by ecologist Robert H. Whittaker from 1949 to 1951 in the Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon, USA. We found sharp declines in herb cover and richness on both serpentine and diorite soils. Declines were strongest in species of northern biogeographic affinity, species endemic to the region (in serpentine communities only), and species endemic to serpentine soils. Consistent with climatic warming, herb communities have shifted from 1949-1951 to 2007 to more closely resemble communities found on xeric (warm, dry) south-facing slopes. The changes found in the Siskiyou herb flora suggest that biotas rich in narrowly distributed endemics may be particularly susceptible to the effects of a warming climate.     

合肥城市绿地土壤特点

以合肥市一环内绿地土壤和近郊蜀山森林公园土壤为对象,研究了土壤表层0~10 cm的理化特性,分析了全磷与速效磷,速效磷与潜在酸度之间的关系。结果表明,市区绿地土壤的容重平均值为1.41 kg/cm3,土壤电导率显著高于近郊森林土壤;城市绿地土壤pH值多在7.51~8.50之间,与森林土壤相比,碱性化趋势明显;城市土壤具有明显的富磷和贫氮特征,其全氮含量平均值为1.44 g/kg,全磷含量平均值为792.0 mg/kg、速效磷含量为50.6 mg/kg,分别是近郊森林土壤的0.64倍、2.9倍和5.1倍;城市土壤全磷与有效磷含量呈显著的正相关(r=0.79,p=0.000);潜在酸度与有效磷含量呈显著负相关(r=0.65,p=0.000)。     

种植蔬菜地与裸地氧化亚氮排放差异比较研究

采用大型原状土柱试验研究了种植蔬菜地与未种植蔬菜裸地土壤氧化亚氮（N2O）排放的差异。试验结果表明,施肥但未种植蔬菜的裸地土壤N2O排放量远大于种植蔬菜地的土壤N2O排放量,裸地土壤N2O平均排放通量为193μg.m-2.h-1,而种植蔬菜后土壤N2O平均排放通量减少至60μg.m-2.h-1;相应地,裸地的N2O排放总量也要远高于种植蔬菜地的N2O排放总量。同时,低施氮量（N1,500 kg.hm-2）下裸地的N2O排放量要比高施氮量（N2,750 kg.hm-2）且种植蔬菜时裸地的N2O排放量大,如2007年10月至2008年9月试验期间,N1处理下裸地总N2O-N排放量为9.54 kg.hm-2,而N2处理（种植蔬菜）下总N2O-N排放量仅为4.21 kg.hm-2。此外,未种植蔬菜时裸地土壤N2O排放系数远大于种植蔬菜时,如N1种植蔬菜时为0.39%,但未种植蔬菜的裸地土壤排放系数为1.76%。研究说明种植作物与否对土壤N2O排放有重要影响,因此在估算农田土壤N2O排放温室气体量时,需考虑裸地的贡献能力。