膨润土对镉胁迫下水稻幼苗生理生化特性的影响

为了探讨膨润土钝化修复镉(Cd)污染土壤对水稻幼苗生理生化特性的响应,通过盆栽试验研究了膨润土对Cd胁迫下水稻幼苗地上部生物量,叶片叶绿素含量,SOD、POD活性以及MDA含量的影响.结果表明,膨润土在不同程度上提高了水稻幼苗叶片叶绿素含量,促进了水稻幼苗的生长和发育,地上部生物量随膨润土投加量的增加而增大.单一Cd污染土壤中,水稻幼苗叶片SOD活性变化不明显,而幼苗根系SOD活性随Cd浓度的增加而显著降低(P＜0.05),投加膨润土后整体上提高了根系SOD活性.单一Cd污染土壤中,水稻幼苗叶片和根系POD活性随Cd浓度的增加而均呈现先应激性升高然后降低的变化趋势,投加膨润土后叶片POD活性有所降低,而5 ～50 g·kg-1膨润土处理显著提高根系POD活性(P＜0.05),比未投加膨润土处理分别增加13.2％ ～22.4％、4.9％ ～9.5％、44.8％～80.6％和6.9％～49.6％.单一Cd污染土壤中,水稻幼苗叶片和根系MDA含量随着Cd浓度的升高而升高,与无Cd胁迫对照相比,分别增加139.0％和158.1％;投加膨润土处理水稻幼苗MDA含量显著降低,膜脂过氧化作用明显减弱.因此,膨润土能有效缓解Cd胁迫对水稻幼苗的毒害作用,可用于Cd污染土壤的钝化修复.     

龙葵和茄子幼苗对镉胁迫的生理响应

采用营养液培养法研究了镉胁迫条件下龙葵和茄子幼苗的生长及生理响应.结果表明:镉胁迫使龙葵和茄子幼苗生长受到不同程度影响.龙葵在镉浓度低于50 μM条件下,地上部干物质量仅下降15.48%%(P＞0.05),根系干物质量在镉浓度低于100 μM下增加111.11%(P<0.05),根系活力也呈先升后降的趋势;茄子地上部干物质量和根系活力在所有镉处理下均低于对照,根系干物质量在镉浓度高于25 μM时即呈现下降趋势,降幅达47.06p.59%,茄子对镉胁迫的耐受性相对较弱.镉胁迫还导致龙葵和茄子幼苗叶片色素含量降低,叶片相对电导率、MDA含量和可溶性糖含量增加,SOD、POD、CAT变化不一致.龙葵叶片SOD活性随镉胁迫程度的增加先增高后降低,POD和CAT活性基本上表现为逐渐上升趋势,而茄子叶片中SOD活性逐渐下降,POD逐渐上升,CAT呈先降后升又降的变化规律,龙葵体内的3种抗氧化酶对镉胁迫起到较强的抗氧化保护作用.     

镉胁迫对大豆花荚期生理生态的影响

为了探讨重金属胁迫对大豆繁殖期生理生态的影响,采用盆栽试验方法,研究了Cd2+胁迫对五月王和日本青两个大豆品系花荚期植株生长及叶片叶绿素含量、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD),活性、过氧化物酶(POD),活性和丙二醛(MDA)含量的影响.结果表明:(1)低质量分数Cd2+胁迫对2个大豆品系的花荚期植株生物量和植株高度均具有促进作用,但随着Cd2+质量分数的增加转而抑制大豆植株的生物量和高度的增加,且质量分数越高其抑制作用越明显.(2)不同质量分数Cd2+处理对花荚期大豆叶片叶绿素合成具有刺激效应,两个大豆品系结荚期的叶绿素含量随胁迫时间的延长呈先增加后降低的趋势.(3)短时间、低质量分数的Cd2+胁迫能增强大豆花荚期SOD活性,长时间、高质量分数的Cd2+胁迫能抑制大豆花荚期SOD活性.(4)随着Cd2+质量分数增加,五月王和日本青结荚期POD活性逐渐升高,但其时间效应有差异;随着胁迫时间的延长,日本青花荚期POD活性稳步提高,而五月王在长时间、高质量分数Cd2+胁迫下POD活性降低.(5)随着Cd2+质量分数和胁迫时间的递增,大豆MDA含量呈"先升后降"趋势.(6)大豆五月王和日本青花荚期对Cd2+耐受性存在较大差异,这主要是由二者的遗传学因素不同决定的而不是环境因素.     

镉胁迫对小白菜（Brassica campestris L.）抗氧化机理的影响

采用水培的方法,研究了不同Cd2 水平(0、1、2.5、5、10、15mg·L-1)对小白菜(Brassica campestris L.)抗氧化酶(SOD、POD、CAT)活性、非酶物质(SH、GSH、PCs)含晕以及生长的影响.结果表明,小白菜叶片和根系SOD活性随Cd处理质量浓度的增加呈降低的变化趋势,POD、CAT活性以及MDA含量随Cd处理质量浓度的增加而增加.小白菜的生物量、根长、株高、叶绿素质量分数随Cd处理质量浓度的增加显著降低(P<0.05),表明Cd抑制了小白菜的生长,破坏了叶绿素的合成.小白菜地上、地下部镉质量分数均随Cd处理质量浓度的增加而显著增加(P<0.05).当Cd处理质量浓度为15 mg·L-1,小白菜地上、地下部镉质量分数分别达到637.5、1 663.0 mg·kg-1,表明小白菜对Cd有良好的富集效果.小白菜根系与叶片中SH、GSH和PCs含量均随Cd处理质量浓度增加而增加的变化趋势,表明SH、GSH和PCs在解毒小白菜Cd毒害中起着重要作用.     

氰戊菊酯对小白菜抗氧化酶活性及丙二醛（MDA）含量的影响

为探讨菊酯类农药胁迫对蔬菜生理生化过程的影响,以小白菜为研究对象,采用大田试验研究了不同浓度氰戊菊酯(20%乳油,推荐用量:稀释1500倍;加倍用量:稀释750倍)对小白菜抗氧化酶活性及丙二醛(MDA)含量的影响.结果表明:喷施推荐用量及喷施加倍用量氰戊菊酯对小白菜抗氧化酶活性均有不同程度的影响.超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性在喷施氰戊菊酯后3d内明显受到抑制,之后明显增加,第21d又受到抑制;过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性在喷药后小幅增加,第21d与对照基本一致;过氧化物酶(POD)活性在喷药后明显受到抑制.喷施推荐用量及喷施加倍用量氰戊菊酯均可引起小白菜MDA含量显著增加,且喷药浓度越高MDA含量越大,存在一定的剂量效应关系,表明氰戊菊酯胁迫促进了小白菜的膜脂过氧化作用.氰戊菊酯可对小白菜产生一定的氧化损伤,导致SOD、CAT、POD活性发生不同程度的变化.氰戊菊酯胁迫对SOD和POD活性以及MDA含量的影响相对较大,其中对MDA的影响最大,MDA含量可作为植物受到氰戊菊酯胁迫时的标记物.     

镉胁迫下油菜毛状根的生理响应及铁钾含量

利用液体悬浮培养法研究不同镉(Cd)浓度(0、25、50、100、200和400μmol/L)胁迫下油菜毛状根的生理响应及对铁钾含量的影响,探究油菜毛状根对镉胁迫的耐受与富集能力.结果显示:(1)低镉浓度(100μmol/L以下)对毛状根的生长无显著影响,高镉浓度(100μmol/L以上)下毛状根的生长则受到明显的抑制,25μmol/L镉胁迫7 d时毛状根的鲜重最大(4.34 g).(2)油菜毛状根中活性氧(ROS)的含量随着镉浓度的增加而上升,根中主要抗氧化酶(超氧化物酶SOD、过氧化物酶POD、过氧化氢酶CAT)的活性在镉胁迫1 d时,表现出先降低后升高的趋势;镉胁迫7 d时,表现出先升高后降低的趋势.(3)碘化丙啶PI染色与丙二醛MDA分析表明,根细胞的损伤随着镉浓度的增加越发严重.(4)油菜毛状根中的镉含量随着培养基中镉浓度的增加而增加,400μmol/L、7 d时,达到最大值2.97 mg/g.毛状根中的铁含量在镉胁迫1 d时随着镉浓度的增加显著上升,最大值达到14.52 mg/g;镉胁迫7 d时没有明显变化.镉胁迫7 d时毛状根中的钾含量是镉胁迫1 d时(15.73 mg/g)的1.6倍.本研究结果表明,油菜毛状根对镉胁迫的生理响应变化与镉的作用浓度和时间相关;同时镉胁迫造成了毛状根中铁、钾元素代谢紊乱,但油菜毛状根对镉有较好的富集效果.     

镉胁迫下杂交稻2品种幼苗的抗性及镉含量的差异

以"两优培九"、"汕优63"杂交稻三叶期幼苗为材料,比较了镉胁迫对生长量,及光系统Ⅱ(PSⅡ)电子传递活性、丙二醛(MDA)含量、光合速率、过氧化物酶(POD)活性、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性的影响及不同器官镉含量的变化。镉胁迫条件下,与"汕优63"相比较,"两优培九"幼叶光合速率和PSⅡ电子传递活性降低幅度较小,生长量较高;"两优培九"保护酶系统活性较高,MDA含量升高幅度较小;"两优培九"地上部分镉含量较低、根系含量较高。镉胁迫条件下,与"汕优63"相比较,"两优培九"根系的生长速率较高,抗镉胁迫的能力较强。     

镉胁迫下杂交稻2品种幼苗的抗性及镉含量的差异

以“两优培九”、“汕优63”杂交稻三叶期幼苗为材料，比较了镉胁迫对生长量，及光系统Ⅱ(PSⅡ)电子传递活性、丙二醛(MDA)含量、光合速率、过氧化物酶(POD)活性、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性、超氧化物歧化酶(SOl9)活性的影响及不同器官镉含量的变化。镉胁迫条件下，与“汕优63”相比较，“两优培九”幼叶光合速率和PSⅡ电子传递活性降低幅度较小，生长量较高；“两优培九”保护酶系统活性较高，MDA含量升高幅度较小；“两优培九”地上部分镉含量较低、根系含量较高。镉胁迫条件下，与“汕优63”相比较，“两优培九”根系的生长速率较高，抗镉胁迫的能力较强。     

麝香酮和镉单一与复合污染对金鱼藻的生态毒理效应研究

为从生物化学角度探讨一种新型污染物———麝香酮与镉(Cd)单一和复合污染的生态毒理效应,以金鱼藻(Ceratophyllum demersum L.)为研究对象,分析了不同浓度麝香酮和Cd在水中单一与复合污染对金鱼藻叶片中抗氧化系统酶,包括超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)和过氧化氢酶(CAT),脂质过氧化最终产物丙二醛(MDA),可溶性蛋白(SP)和叶绿素含量的影响.结果表明:在单一麝香酮和Cd暴露下,SOD活性第1天均显著降低,而第7天在低浓度污染物的胁迫下呈升高趋势;金鱼藻受麝香酮和Cd胁迫的第1天,POD酶活性分别呈升高和降低趋势;麝香酮浓度为0.05mg·L-1或Cd浓度为0.01mg·L-1时,金鱼藻叶片中的CAT活性变化表现为显著的毒物兴奋作用;用两种污染物单一或复合处理第7天,金鱼藻叶片中的MDA和叶绿素含量可以作为评价麝香酮或/和Cd污染水体环境的敏感指标;SP在这两种污染物胁迫下处于能量及脂蛋白的补偿和应激蛋白的合成两方面的得失平衡过程中,故其含量与处理浓度之间无显著相关关系;复合污染中低浓度的麝香酮和Cd复合对金鱼藻表现为拮抗作用,高浓度的复合表现为相加或协同作用.     

Zn2+胁迫及恢复下番茄幼苗根系中抗氧化系统的动态变化

通过温室水培试验,研究1.0×10-4mol/LZn2 胁迫及解除胁迫对番茄(Lycopersicom esculentum Mill.)幼苗根系中抗氧化系统的动态变化.结果表明,胁迫条件下,番茄根系丙二醛(MDA)和蛋白质含量增加;超氧化物歧化酶(SOD,EC1.15.1.1),过氧化氢酶(CAT,EC1.11.1.6)和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GPX,EC1.11.1.9)活性上升,而过氧化物酶(POD,EC1.11.1.7)活性下降;AsA-GSH循环代谢受影响;抗坏血酸过氧化酶(APX,EC1.11.1.11)活性在胁迫d1、d3上升,随后下降,而谷胱甘肽还原酶(GR,EC1.6.4.2)活性在胁迫1~5d时下降,随后上升;抗坏血酸(AsA)和谷胱甘肽(GSH)含量上升.解除胁迫后,根系中MDA和蛋白质含量随时间延长逐渐减少,接近对照;POD和APX活性增加,而SOD、CAT和GR活性及GSH含量先升高,随后减少;GPX活性和AsA含量却降低;恢复后根系中抗氧化物水平仍然高于对照.依据实验结果,文中讨论了胁迫及恢复过程中植物AsA-GSH循环代谢的作用.图3参16     

Antennal responses of four species of tree-killing bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) to volatiles collected from beetles,and their host and nonhost conifers

Summary. Host selection in tree-killing bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) is mediated by a complex of semiochemical cues. Using gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) and GC-mass spectrometric analyses, we conducted a comparative study of the electrophysiological responses of four species of tree-killing bark beetles, the Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae, Hopkins, the mountain pine beetle, D. ponderosae Hopkins, the spruce beetle, D. rufipennis Kirby, and the western balsam bark beetle, Dryocoetes confusus Swaine, to volatiles captured by aeration of 1) bole and foliage of four sympatric species of conifers, Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm., interior spruce, Picea engelmannii x glauca, and interior fir, Abies lasiocarpa x bifolia, and 2) con- and heterospecific beetles at three stages of attack. We identified 13 monoterpenes in the conifers and nine compounds in the volatiles of beetles that elicited antennal responses. There was no qualitative difference in the terpene constitution of the four species of conifers and very little difference across beetle species in their antennal response to compounds from conifers or beetles. The lack of species-specific major or minor components in conifers suggests that beetles would need to detect differences in the ratios of different compounds in conifers to discriminate among them. Attraction to hosts and avoidance of nonhost conifers may be accentuated by perception of compounds emitted by con- and heterospecific beetles, respectively. The 22 compounds identified are candidate semiochemicals with potential behavioural roles in host location and discrimination.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Diet-induced chemical phytomimesis by twig-like caterpillars of Biston robustum Butler (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Summary. Polyphagous caterpillars of the giant geometer Biston robustum resemble the twigs of their respective food sources in color and shape. Common predatory ants, including Lasius and Formica, were often observed to freely prowl directly on caterpillars bodies, even after antennal contact. This suggests that the cuticular chemicals of the caterpillars resemble those of the twigs of the foodplants, so we analyzed both by GC and GC-MS. The chemical compositions differed among caterpillars fed on a cherry, Prunus yedoensis, a chinquapin Castanopsis cuspidata, and a camellia Camellia japonica. The cuticular chemicals of the caterpillars resembled those of their corresponding food sources. When the caterpillar diets were switched from the cherry to camellia or chinquapin at the 4^th instars, the caterpillars cuticular chemicals changed after molting to resemble those of their respective foods. Caterpillars also changed their cuticular chemicals when they perched on cherry twigs and fed on camellia or chinquapin leaves, but not when they perched on camellia or chinquapin twigs and fed on cherry leaves. The chemical similarities between the caterpillars and the twigs were due to the digestion of host leaves, which indicates that this is a diet-induced adaptation.     

Benthic macrophyte communities in the Ghar El Melh lagoon (North Tunisia)

This work deals with the biodiversity and distribution of benthic macrophytes in the Ghar El Melh lagoon, a Mediterranean coastal lagoon located in the North of Tunisia. An inventory was made of the benthic flora and submerged macrophyte communities were mapped during two successive campaigns (the summer of 1999 and the winter of 2000). The following 24 macrophyte species were identified: seven red algae, two brown algae, 11 green algae, and four marine angiosperms. The results were compared with available data from the literature. Ruppia cirrhosa is the most dominant species. It is found in all lagoon parts, except in the west sector.Ruppia beds are usually associated withCladophora forming heterogeneous communities. During summerRuppia cirrhosa shows a large distribution, covering an area of ca. 21.4 km², with dense, extensive beds covering 80–100%. In winter, severalCladophora species have a very large distribution as well, covering nearly an area of 28.5 km² with an average cover of 46%. The green algaeCaulerpa prolifera is confined to the eastern part of the lagoon which is mainly affected by seawater. In comparison with previous situations, many transformations were observed in biodiversity and spatial distribution of the dominant communities. Thus,Cymodocea nodosa andZostera beds, which dominated in the 1970s, were replaced byZostera andCaulerpa prolifera in the 1980s and are currently succeeded byRuppia cirrhosa andCladophora. Restoration of the Ghar El Melh lagoon will enable an increase in the exchange with the open sea and the circulation of water, in particular in the confined zones. This should considerably improve the water quality and would positively influence the phytobenthic communities.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Increase of multi-metal tolerance of three leguminous plants by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonization

A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of the colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Glomus mosseae on the growth and metal uptake of three leguminous plants (Sesbania rostrata, Sesbania cannabina, Medicago sativa) grown in multi-metal contaminated soil. AMF colonization increased the growth of the legumes, indicating that AMF colonization increased the plant’s resistance to heavy metals. It also significantly stimulated the formation of root nodules and increased the N and P uptake of all of the tested leguminous plants, which might be one of the tolerance mechanisms conferred by AMF. Compared with the control, colonization by G. mosseae decreased the concentration of metals, such as Cu, in the shoots of the three legumes, indicating that the decreased heavy metals uptake and growth dilution were induced by AMF treatment, thereby reducing the heavy metal toxicity to the plants. The root/shoot ratios of Cu in the three legumes and Zn in M. sativa were significantly increased (P < 0.05) with AMF colonization, indicating that heavy metals were immobilized by the mycorrhiza and the heavy metal translocations to the shoot were decreased.     

Absolute configuration of the major sex pheromone component of the satin moth, Leucoma salicis, verified by field trapping test in Hungary

Summary. Male satin moths, Leucoma (Stilpnotia) salicis L. (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) were attracted only to (3Z,6R,7S,9R,10S)-isomer out of the four (3Z)-cis-6,7-cis-9,10-diepoxy-3-henicosenes (leucomalure). This was demonstrated by field trapping test with a bivoltine population in a mixed poplar-willow forest along the flood area of the river Danube at Adony, Hungary.     

Main nutrient compounds in food bodies of Mexican <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia</Emphasis> ant-plants

Summary. Myrmecophytic plants use obligate ant mutualists as a constitutive indirect defence mechanism. These plants often produce cellular food bodies (FBs) to nourish their resident ants. Lipids, proteins, and even highly specialised compounds such as glycogen have been reported from FBs, but detailed chemical analyses of FB composition have so far been presented only for Southeast Asian Macaranga and Central American Piper myrmecophytes. Here we report the chemical composition of FBs of five myrmecophytic Acacia (Fabaceae) species from Mexico using HPLC (carbohydrates and proteins) and GC-MS (lipids). Feeding experiments revealed no hints on any use of external food sources by the inhabiting Pseudomyrmex ants. These ants obviously rely completely on FBs and extrafloral nectar provided by their hosts. The total content of nutrients in Acacia FBs was 15-25% of FB dry mass, being much lower than in Macaranga or Piper FBs. Proteins were dominating (8-14 % dm) in Acacia FBs and thus were present in higher amounts than in Macaranga FBs, yet in lower amounts than in Piper. Lipids contributed 1-9 % of dry mass, showing a lower proportion than in FBs of Macaranga or Piper. Carbohydrates made up 3-11 % dm, reaching in most Acacia species the same range as observed in Macaranga and in Piper FBs. Water content was 18-24 % of FB fresh mass, and structural tissue obviously made up a much higher proportion in Acacia FBs than in Macaranga or Piper FBs. Both characters might represent an adaptation to producing FBs unprotected at the leaf tips under dry conditions. Acacia FBs contain all amino acids and all fatty acids that are considered essential for insects, and their contents of lipids and proteins are higher than in the leaves from which they are ontogenetically derived. This indicates a putatively adaptive enrichment of nutritionally valuable compounds in structures functioning as ant-food.     

Toxicity assays of ladybirds using natural predators

Nestling blue titsParus caeruleus L. were given diets containing homogenized ladybirds, to assess the effects of their chemical defences. The 2spot, 10spot and water ladybirds produced no apparent toxic effects when small numbers were given at regular intervals.The pine and kidney-spot ladybirds slightly inhibit growth and may be toxic to very young nestlings. The Water ladybird is extremely distasteful to this predator, despite its lack of toxicity. The results are discussed with reference to the proposed Müllerian and Batesian mimetic relationships between the ladybird species.     

Net energetic advantage drives honey bees (Apis mellifera L) to nectar larceny in Vaccinium ashei Reade

Carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.) act as primary nectar thieves in rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade), piercing corollas laterally to imbibe nectar at basal nectaries. Honey bees (Apis mellifera L) learn to visit these perforations and thus become secondary nectar thieves. We tested the hypothesis that honey bees make this behavioral switch in response to an energetic advantage realized by nectar-robbing flower visits. Nectar volume and sugar quantity were higher in intact than perforated flowers, but bees (robbers) visiting perforated flowers were able to extract a higher percentage of available nectar and sugar so that absolute amount of sugar (mg) removed by one bee visit is the same for each flower type. However, because perforated flowers facilitate higher rates of bee flower visitation and the same or higher rates of nectar ingestion, they are rendered more profitable than intact flowers in temporal terms. Accordingly, net energy (J) gain per second flower handling time was higher for robbers on most days sampled. We conclude that the majority evidence indicates an energetic advantage for honey bees that engage in secondary nectar thievery in V. ashei.Communicated by R. Page