A spatially explicit investigation of phosphorus sorption and related soil properties in two riparian wetlands

Soils of riparian wetlands are highly effective at phosphorus (P) sorption. However, these soils exhibit extreme spatial variability across riparian zones. We used a spatially explicit sampling design in two riparian wetlands in North Carolina to better understand the relationships among P sorption, soil properties, and spatial variability. Our objectives were to quantify patterns of spatial variability of P sorption and related soil properties, and to determine which soil properties best explained the variability in P sorption after accounting for the effects of spatial autocorrelation. We measured bulk density, moisture, pH, soil organic matter (SOM), texture (percent clay, silt, and sand), oxalate-extractable aluminum (Al(ox)), iron (Fe(ox)), and the phosphorus sorption index (PSI). Due to differences in texture, Al(ox), and Fe(ox), the two sites had substantially different mean PSIs. At each site, we found considerable differences in the spatial variability of soil properties. For example, semivariance analysis and kriging illustrated that soil properties at Site 1 varied at smaller scales than those at Site 2. At both sites, after accounting for the effects of spatial autocorrelation and all other soil properties, we determined that Al(ox) had the highest Mantel correlation with PSI. We believe this geostatistic and Mantel approach is robust and could serve as a model for research on other biogeochemical processes such as denitrification.     

Biosolids effects on phosphorus retention and release in some sandy Florida soils

The soil solid phase components most responsible for P sorption in Florida soils are Fe and Al oxides. Thus, we hypothesized that land application of biosolids would significantly increase a soil's P retention by increasing its content of P-sorbing solids, especially when biosolids with high Fe and Al concentrations are applied to soils that sorb P poorly. Biosolids effects were quantified by a series of single-point isotherms on soils from two field studies sampled for up to 4 yr after initial biosolids application. Biosolids additions had little effect on P retention in a soil with abundant oxalate-extractable Fe and Al and a correspondingly large native P-sorbing capacity. However, biosolids significantly increased P retention in a soil with low oxalate-extractable Fe and Al content and low native P-sorbing capacity. Biosolids effects on P retention lasted 1 to 3 yr after application, depending on biosolids source and rate of application, and generally mimicked persistence of increased extractable Fe and Al concentrations in the poorly P-sorbing soil. Disappearance of added Fe and Al (and, hence, P retention capacity) from the surface horizons over time was relatively rapid, perhaps due to abundant organic acid production associated with biosolids degradation. Phosphorus in biosolids containing (or tailored to contain) abundant Fe and/or Al can be expected to behave as a slowly available P source, and to be less subject to leaching losses than completely soluble P sources.     

Environmental index for estimating the risk of phosphorus loss in calcareous soils of Manitoba

The degree of phosphorus saturation (DPS) has been used in evaluating the risk of P loss from soil to runoff. While techniques are available for calculating DPS for acid soils, no widely used technique exists for neutral to calcareous soils that are typical of the Northern Great Plains, including Manitoba (Canada) soils. This study aimed to develop techniques of calculating the DPS of neutral to alkaline soils. Four measures of soil labile P and ten indices of P sorption capacity were used to calculate the DPS of 115 Manitoba soils. The various DPS calculated were evaluated using water-extractable ((H2O)) P as an index of P susceptibility to runoff loss. The DPS obtained using Olsen-extractable ((Ols)) P and the Langmuir adsorption maximum (ES(max)) ranged from 0.5 to 31.9% while those obtained from P(Ols) and the single-point adsorption index (P(150)) ranged from 0.9 to 73.9%. Of all the DPS evaluated, those that included P(Ols) and Mehlich 3-extractable ((M3)) P as the numerator with either P(150) or ES(max) as the denominator were fairly well correlated with P(H2O) (r values ranged between 0.45 and 0.63). Along with ES(max) and P(150), a new method of calculating DPS was formulated as the ratio of P(Ols) or P(M3) to Ca(M3) or (Ca + Mg)(M3). We found that the ratio of ammonium oxalate-extractable ((ox)) P to (Al + Fe)(ox), which has been widely used to calculate DPS in acid soils, was not suitable for neutral to alkaline soils of Manitoba. In these neutral to alkaline soils, Ca(M3) or (Ca + Mg)(M3) were better indices of P sorption capacity while P(Ols) and P(M3) provided better estimates of labile soil P. The DPS calculated using Ca(M3) or (Ca + Mg)(M3) were well correlated with P(H2O); however, they were numerically smaller than those obtained from the Langmuir adsorption maximum. As such, a saturation coefficient (alpha) with a value of 0.2 was generated to improve the numerical values of the newly estimated DPS. This new approach can be used to estimate the DPS in neutral and calcareous soils without the need to generate a P adsorption maximum.     

Phosphorus saturation in spodosols impacted by manure

Significant amounts of phosphorus (P) accumulate in soils receiving animal manures that could eventually result in unacceptable concentrations of dissolved P loss through surface runoff or subsurface leaching. The degree of phosphorus saturation (DPS) relates a soil's extractable P to its P sorbing capacity, and is reportedly a predictor of the P likely to be mobilized from a system. A DPS value (DPS-1) was derived that expressed the percentage of Mehlich 1-extractable P to the sorbing capacity of a Spodosol (expressed as the sum of oxalate-extractable Fe and Al). Values of DPS-1 were determined in various horizons of soil in current and abandoned dairy systems in South Florida's Lake Okeechobee watershed to assess P release potential. Land use within the dairies was classified as highly impacted by cattle (intensive and holding), and minimally impacted by cattle (pasture, forage, or native) areas. The A and E horizon of soils in heavily manure-impacted intensive and holding areas for both active and abandoned dairies generally had higher DPS-1 values than the pasture, forage, and native area soils, which were minimally impacted by manure. Degree of P saturation was also calculated as a percentage of Mehlich 1-extractable P to the sum of Mehlich 1-extractable Fe and Al (DPS-2). Both DPS-1 and DPS-2 were shown to be significantly (P = 0.0001) related to water-extractable P for all soil horizons, suggesting that either index can be used as an indicator for P loss potential from a soil.     

Estimating soil phosphorus requirements and limits from oxalate extract data

Excessive fertilizer and manure phosphorus (P) inputs to soils elevates P in soil solution and surface runoff, which can lead to freshwater eutrophication. Runoff P can be related to soil test P and P sorption saturation, but these approaches are restricted to a limited range of soil types or are difficult to determine on a routine basis. The purpose of this study was to determine whether easily measurable soil characteristics were related to the soil phosphorus requirements (P(req), the amount of P sorbed at a particular solution P level). The P(req) was determined for 18 chemically diverse soils from sorption isotherm data (corrected for native sorbed P) and was found to be highly correlated to the sum of oxalate-extractable Al and Fe (R2 > 0.90). Native sorbed P, also determined from oxalate extraction, was subtracted from the P(req) to determine soil phosphorus limits (PL, the amount of P that can be added to soil to reach P(req)). Using this approach, the PL to reach 0.2 mg P L(-1) in solution ranged between -92 and 253 mg P kg(-1). Negative values identified soils with surplus P, while positive values showed soils with P deficiency. The results showed that P, Al, and Fe in oxalate extracts of soils held promise for determining PL to reach up to 10 mg P L(-1) in solution (leading to potential runoff from many soils). The soil oxalate extraction test could be integrated into existing best management practices for improving soil fertility and protecting water quality.     

Influence of water treatment residuals on phosphorus solubility and leaching

Laboratory and greenhouse studies compared the ability of water treatment residuals (WTRs) to alter P solubility and leaching in Immokalee sandy soil (sandy, siliceous, hyperthermic Arenic Alaquod) amended with biosolids and triple superphosphate (TSP). Aluminum sulfate (Al-WTR) and ferric sulfate (Fe-WTR) coagulation residuals, a lime softening residual (Ca-WTR) produced during hardness removal, and pure hematite were examined. In equilibration studies, the ability to reduce soluble P followed the order Al-WTR > Ca-WTR = Fe-WTR > hematite. Differences in the P-fixing capacity of the sesquioxide-dominated materials (Al-WTR, Fe-WTR, hematite) were attributed to their varying reactive Fe- and Al-hydrous oxide contents as measured by oxalate extraction. Leachate P was monitored from greenhouse columns where bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge) was grown on Immokalee soil amended with biosolids or TSP at an equivalent rate of 224 kg P ha(-1) and WTRs at 2.5% (56 Mg ha(-1)). In the absence of WTRs, 21% of TSP and 11% of Largo cake biosolids total phosphorus (PT) leached over 4 mo. With co-applied WTRs, losses from TSP columns were reduced to 3.5% (Fe-WTR), 2.5% (Ca-WTR), and <1% (Al-WTR) of applied P. For the Largo biosolids treatments all WTRs retarded downward P flux such that leachate P was not statistically different than for control (soil only) columns. The phosphorus saturation index (PSI = [Pox]/ [Al(ox) + Fe(ox)], where Pox, Al, and Fe(ox) are oxalate-extractable P, Al, and Fe, respectively) based on a simple oxalate extraction of the WTR and biosolids is potentially useful for determining WTR application rates for controlled reduction of P in drainage when biosolids are applied to low P-sorbing soils.     

Spatial variation of soil phosphorus within a drainage ditch network

Agricultural drainage ditches serve as P transport pathways from fields to surface waters. Little is known about the spatial variation of P at the soil-water interface within ditch networks. We quantified the spatial variation of surficial (0-5 cm) soil P within vegetated agricultural ditches on a farm in Princess Anne, MD with an approximately 30-yr history of poultry litter application. Ditch soils from 10 ditches were sampled at 10-m intervals and analyzed for acid ammonium oxalate-extractable P, Fe, Al (P(ox), Fe(ox), Al(ox)), and pH. These variables were spatially autocorrelated. Oxalate-P (min = 135 mg kg(-1), max = 6919 mg kg(-1), mean = 700 mg kg(-1)) exhibited a high standard deviation across the study area (overall 580 mg kg(-1)) and within individual ditches (maximum 1383 mg kg(-1)). Several ditches contained distinct areas of high P(ox), which were associated with either point- or nonpoint-P sources. Phosphorus was correlated with Al(ox) or Fe(ox) within specific ditches. Across all ditches, Al(ox) (r = 0.80; p < 0.001) was better correlated with P(ox) than was Fe(ox) (r = 0.44; p < 0.001). The high level of spatial variation of soil P observed in this ditch network suggests that spatially distributed sampling may be necessary to target best management practices and to model P transport and fate in ditch networks.     

Relationships between biosolids treatment process and soil phosphorus availability

Laws mandating phosphorus (P)-based nutrient management plans have been passed in several U.S. Mid-Atlantic states. Biosolids (sewage sludge) are frequently applied to agricultural land and in this study we evaluated how biosolids treatment processes and biosolids P tests were related to P behavior in biosolids-amended soils. Eight biosolids generated by different treatment processes, with respect to digestion and iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and lime addition, and a poultry litter (PL), were incubated with an Elkton silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, active, mesic Typic Endoaquult) and a Suffolk sandy loam (fine-loamy, siliceous, semiactive, thermic Typic Hapludult) for 51 d. The amended soils were analyzed at 1 and 51 d for water-soluble phosphorus (WSP), iron-oxide strip--extractable phosphorus (FeO-P), Mehlich-1 P and pH. The biosolids and PL were analyzed for P, Fe, and Al by USEPA 3050 acid-peroxide digestion and acid ammonium oxalate, Mehlich-1, and Mehlich-3 extractions. Biosolids and PL amendments increased extractable P in the Suffolk sandy loam to a greater extent than in the Elkton silt loam throughout the 51 d of the incubation. The trend of extractable WSP, FeO-P, and Mehlich-1 P generally followed the pattern: [soils amended with biosolids produced without the use of Fe or Al] > [PL and biosolids produced using Fe or Al and lime] > [biosolids produced using only Fe and Al salts]. Mehlich-3 P and the molar ratio of P to [Al + Fe] by either the USEPA 3050 digestion or oxalate extraction of the biosolids were good predictors of changes in soil-extractable P following biosolids but not PL amendment. Therefore, the testing of biosolids for P availability, rather than total P, is a more appropriate tool for predicting extractable P from the biosolids-amended soils used in this study.     

Relationship between soil test phosphorus and phosphorus in runoff: effects of soil series variability

Phosphorus loss in runoff from agricultural fields has been identified as an important contributor to eutrophication. The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between phosphorus (P) in runoff from a benchmark soil (Cecil sandy loam; fine, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kanhapludult) and Mehlich III-, deionized water-, and Fe(2)O(3)-extractable soil P, and degree of phosphorus saturation (DPS). Additionally, the value of including other soil properties in P loss prediction equations was evaluated. Simulated rainfall was applied (75 mm h(-1)) to 54 1-m(2) plots installed on six fields with different soil test phosphorus (STP) levels. Runoff was collected in its entirety for 30 min and analyzed for total P and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP). Soil samples were collected from 0- to 2-, 0- to 5-, and 0- to 10-cm depths. The strongest correlation for total P and DRP occurred with DPS (r(2) = 0.72). Normalizing DRP by runoff depth resulted in improved correlation with deionized water-extractable P for the 0- to 10-cm sampling depth (r(2) = 0.81). The STP levels were not different among sampling depths and analysis of the regression equations revealed that soil sampling depth had no effect on the relationship between STP and P in runoff. For all forms of P in runoff and STP measures, the relationship between STP and runoff P was much stronger when the data were split into groups based on the ratio of oxalate-extractable Fe to Al. For all forms of P in runoff and all STP methods, R(2) increased with the inclusion of oxalate-extractable Al and Fe in the regression equation. The results of this study indicate that inclusion of site-specific information about soil Al and Fe content can improve the relationship between STP and runoff P.     

Colloidal and dissolved phosphorus in sandy soils as affected by phosphorus saturation

Fertilization exceeding crop requirements causes an accumulation of phosphorus (P) in soils, which might increase concentrations of dissolved and colloidal P in drainage. We sampled soils classified as Typic Haplorthods from four fertilization experiments to test (i) whether increasing degrees of phosphorus saturation (DPS) increase concentrations of dissolved and colloidal P, and (ii) if critical DPS levels can be defined for P release from these soils. Oxalate-extractable concentrations of P, iron (Fe), and aluminum (Al) were quantified to characterize DPS. Turbidity, zeta potential, dissolved P, and colloidal P, Fe, Al, and carbon (C) concentrations were determined in water and KCl extracts. While concentrations of dissolved P decreased with increasing depth, concentrations of water-extractable colloidal P remained constant. In topsoils 28 +/- 17% and in subsoils 94 +/- 8% of water-extractable P was bound to colloids. Concentrations of dissolved P increased sharply for DPS > 0.1. Colloidal P concentrations increased with increasing DPS because of an additional mobilization of colloids and due to an increase of the colloids P contents. In addition to DPS, ionic strength and Ca(2+) affected the release of colloidal P. Hence, using KCl for extraction improved the relationship between DPS and colloidal P compared with water extraction. Accumulation of P in soils increases not only concentrations of dissolved P but also the risk of colloidal P mobilization. Leaching of colloidal P is potentially important for inputs of P into water bodies because colloidal P as the dominant water-extractable P fraction in subsoils was released from soils with relatively low DPS.     

Phosphorus in Hawaiian kikuyugrass pastures and potential phosphorus release to water

Pasture systems in Hawaii are based primarily on kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov.). Relationships among kikuyugrass P concentration, animal P requirements, and various soil P determinations are needed to help identify source areas for implementing pasture management strategies to limit P loss via overland flow. A total of 51 rotationally stocked kikuyugrass pastures (>20 yr old) with contrasting soil chemical properties were sampled. A satisfactory predictive relationship between modified-Truog (MT)-extractable phosphorus (P(MT)) and dissolved (<0.45-mum pore diameter), molybdate-reactive phosphorus (DRP) desorbed from soil in a water extract (DRP(WE)) was found when 0- to 4-cm-depth data for the soil orders with medium to high DRP(WE) (two Mollisols and an Inceptisol) were pooled separately from those with low DRP(WE) (five Andisols, three Ultisols, and an Oxisol). The oxalate phosphorus saturation index (PSI(ox)) procedure was the best predictor of DRP(WE) across soil orders when oxalate-extractable molybdate-reactive phosphorus (RP(ox)) was used to calculate PSI(ox) (PSI(ox)RP) rather than when total oxalate-extractable phosphorus (TP(ox)) was used (PSI(ox)TP). There was little DRP(WE) until PSI(ox)RP exceeded 6% or PSI(ox)TP exceeded 8%. A more empirical dilute-acid phosphorus saturation index (PSI(MT)) was also calculated using P(MT) and MT-extractable iron (Fe(MT)) and aluminum (Al(MT)). The PSI(MT) procedure showed some utility in predicting DRP(WE), was positively related to the PSI(ox) procedures, and can be more readily performed in agronomic soil testing laboratories than PSI(ox). The present research suggests that while Hawaiian kikuyugrass pastures tend to be sufficient to high in forage P, potential soil P release to water only appeared to be a possible environmental concern for the Mollisol and Inceptisol sites.     

Vertical distribution of phosphorus in agricultural drainage ditch soils

Pedological processes such as gleization and organic matter accumulation may affect the vertical distribution of P within agricultural drainage ditch soils. The objective of this study was to assess the vertical distribution of P as a function of horizonation in ditch soils at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore Research Farm in Princess Anne, Maryland. Twenty-one profiles were sampled from 10 agricultural ditches ranging in length from 225 to 550 m. Horizon samples were analyzed for total P; water-extractable P; Mehlich-3 P; acid ammonium oxalate-extractable P, Fe, and Al (P ox, Fe ox, Al ox); pH; and organic C (n = 126). Total P ranged from 27 to 4882 mg kg(-1), P ox from 4 to 4631 mg kg(-1), Mehlich-3 P from 2 to 401 mg kg(-1), and water-extractable P from 0 to 17 mg kg(-1). Soil-forming processes that result in differences between horizons had a strong relationship with various P fractions and P sorption capacity. Fibric organic horizons at the ditch soil surface had the greatest mean P ox, Fe ox, and Al ox concentrations of any horizon class. Gleyed A horizons had a mean Fe ox concentrations 2.6 times lower than dark A horizons and were significantly lower in total P and P ox. Variation in P due to organic matter accumulation and gleization provide critical insight into short- and long-term dynamics of P in ditch soils and should be accounted for when applying ditch management practices.     

Phosphorus adsorption and desorption potential of stream sediments and field soils in agricultural watersheds

Phosphorus release from stream sediments into water could increase P loads leaving agricultural watersheds and contribute to lag-time between implementation of best management practices and improvement in water quality. Improved understanding of P release from stream sediments can assist in setting water quality goals and designing stream monitoring programs. The objective of this study was to estimate the relative potential of sediments and soils to release P to stream water in two agricultural watersheds. Stream sediments were collected from banks, pools, riffles, and depositional features. Soils were sampled from wheat, row crop, pasture, and manure-amended fields. Sediments and soils were analyzed for equilibrium P concentration at zero net P sorption (EPC0), maximum P adsorption capacity (P(max)), anion exchange extractable P (P(lab)), and degree of P saturation. Dissolved reactive P (DRP) of stream water was monitored. Stream sediment EPC0 was similar to or less than EPC0 from field soils; however, P(lab) of stream sediments was three times less than field soils. Sediments were sandy and had low P(max) due to low oxalate-extractable Fe and Al, which could be explained by stream geomorphology. Manure-amended fields had the highest EPC0 and P(lab) due to continued inputs of manure-based P; however, conventionally fertilized fields also represented an important P source due to their vast extent. Stream water DRP was similar to EPC0 of sediments during base flow and similar to EPC0 of field soils during storm flow. These results indicate that sediments in these streams are a relatively minor P source.     

Sorption of inorganic and total phosphorus from dairy and swine slurries to soil

Understanding P sorption from animal manures is essential to formulate best management practices with regard to land application of manure from the standpoint of crop production and environmental quality. Little research has focused on the construction of P sorption isotherms where the P source is manure. The objectives of this study were to: (i) develop a procedure to characterize how inorganic P (P(i)) and total P (P(t)) from dairy slurry and swine slurry sorbs to soil; and (ii) compare the sorption characteristics of P(i) and P(t) where the P source was dairy slurry, swine slurry, or potassium phosphate (KH2PO4). Sorption solutions were prepared in 0.1 M KCl at pH 6 and equilibrated with soils at a 1:25 (w/v) soil/solution ratio for 24 h. Inorganic P, P(t), Al, and Fe in the equilibrated solutions were measured. For all soils, P(i) and P(t) sorption capacity of dairy slurry was greater than KH2PO4. Total P sorption capacity of swine slurry was greater than KH2PO4, while P(i) sorption capacity was less than KH2PO4. Overall, P(i) and P(t) sorption strengths of the manure slurries were less than or equal to KH2PO4. Increased P(i) sorption from dairy slurry was correlated with Fe and Al desorption. Reduction of P(i) sorption capacity from swine slurry was related to preferential sorption of organic P. Additional studies need to be conducted to determine how differences in P sorption between manures and fertilizer impact in-field P availability to a crop and potential for losses in runoff water.     

Phosphorus sorption by sediments in a southeastern coastal plain in-stream wetland

A close relationship has been reported between sediment organic C (SedOC) content and its P sorption capacity (P(max)) and total P (TP) concentration. Phosphorus sorbed to organically complexed cations is a proposed explanation for this relationship. The objectives of this study were (i) to determine relationships between in-stream wetland SedOC content and both the sediment's P(max) and TP concentrations, and (ii) to ascertain the role of both organically complexed and oxalate-extractable cations on the sediment P(max) and TP values. The sediment's oxalate-extractable Fe (Fe(ox)) and Al (Al(ox)) contents were determined using acidified ammonium oxalate, while sodium pyrophosphate was used to extract organically complexed cations (Al(pryo), Ca(pyro), Fe(pyro), Mg(pyro), and Mn(pyro)). Both the sediment's P(max) and TP contents were strongly correlated with its SedOC concentration (r(2) > 0.90, P < 0.001). Only the Al(ox) contents were significantly correlated with TP and P(max), suggesting that amorphous Al forms have an important role in P sorption. All five pyrophosphate-extracted cations were significantly correlated with SedOC contents. Regression analyses showed that the Al(pyro) accounted for 88% of the variation in sediment P(max) values, whereas a combination of Al(pyro) and Ca(pyro) accounted for 98% of the variation in sediment TP concentrations. Additionally, Al and Ca chelated by SedOC compounds also have an important role in P binding and indicate that a linkage exists between the wetlands SedOC and P(max) content and its ability to accumulate TP. This study identified that two different mechanisms have significant roles in regulating P sorption by sediments in a southeastern Coastal Plain in-stream wetland.     

Leachate characteristics,dry matter yield of Urochloa decumbens and properties of two contrasting soils irrigated with sludgewater in columns

Increasing demands on freshwater and challenges in disposal of wastewaters encourage their use for irrigation. The study evaluated the effects of irrigation of signal grass (Urochloa decumbens) with sludgewater on leaching, uptake and retention of a range of elements in two contrasting soils in columns. The grass was grown on a sandy loam and a clay soil packed in plastic columns and irrigated for 119 days with either undiluted, diluted sludgewater or tap water. The sludgewater had a pH of 6.9 and high aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and boron (B). Analyses were conducted on leachates, above-ground plant biomass (two harvests), and soils at the end of the experiment. Sludgewater treatments increased grass biomass yield and uptake of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg) in both soils with a greater nutrient uptake from the clay than the sandy loam. The application of sludgewater increased Mn and reduced P (sandy loam only) in the leachate with no effects on Al, Fe, or B. Uptake of Al, Fe, and B was increased by sludgewater application. Even when diluted, the sludgewater increased extractable Mn, particularly in the clay soil. The findings showed that irrigation of the soils with sludgewater increased Mn and B concentrations and uptake by signal grass, with no negative effects on biomass production. Leaching and accumulation in the soils of toxic elements were minimal in the short term. Sludgewater can therefore be used to grow signal grass in both soils although these effects need to be evaluated under field conditions.     

Soil variables for predicting potential phosphorus release in Swedish noncalcareous soils

The accumulation of P in agricultural soils due to fertilization has increased the risk of P losses from agricultural fields to surface waters. In risk assessment systems for P losses, both P release from soil to solution and transport mechanisms need to be considered. In this study, the overall objective was to identify soil variables for prediction of potential P release from soil to solution. Soils from nine sites of the Swedish long-term fertility experiment were used, each with four soil P levels. Phosphorus extractable with CaCl2 was used as an estimate of potential P release from soil to solution. Ammonium lactate-extractable phosphorus (P-AL) or NaHCO3-extractable phosphorus (Olsen P) could not be used alone for prediction of potential P release since soils with high phosphorus sorption capacity (PSC) released less P than soils with low PSC at the same soil test phosphorus (STP) level. Degree of phosphorus saturation (DPS) was calculated as Olsen P or P-AL as a percentage of PSC derived from P sorption isotherms or from Fe and Al extractable in ammonium oxalate. The CaCl2-extractable total phosphorus (CaCl2-TP) was exponentially related to these DPS values (r2 > or = 0.79). The CaCl2-TP was also linearly related to ratios between Olsen P or P-AL and a single-point phosphorus sorption index (PSI; r2 > or = 0.86). These ratios, which are easily determined and gave good correlations with CaCl2-TP, seemed to be the most useful estimates of potential P release for risk assessment systems.     

Evaluation of an acid ammonium oxalate extraction to determine fluoride resident concentrations in soils

Fluoride depositions near aluminum smelters and other fluoride-emitting plants can lead to fluoride accumulation in soils, which constitutes a risk for ground water contamination. This study was conducted to investigate the capacity of a 0.2 M acid ammonium oxalate solution to selectively and quantitatively extract fluoride accumulated in soils. The recovery of fluoride added to three soils was evaluated following 7- to 28-d incubations. Oxalate extraction was also compared with a total fluoride extraction method, using oxalate-extractable fluoride (Fox) and total fluoride (Ftot) accumulation profiles derived from column percolation experiments. To determine low-level fluoride concentrations without interference from high Al and Fe concentrations, an adapted ion chromatography method was used. Following soil incubations, oxalate extracted 42 to 86% of added fluoride. Recovery varied between soils and, in one soil, increased with added fluoride concentration. Recovery was unaffected by incubation time. Maximum recovery was obtained in a soil high in amorphous Fe and Al, low in clay, and free of carbonate. Lower recoveries were obtained in soils with higher clay or carbonate contents. Only 4 to 8% of Ftot was extracted in untreated samples using Fox, which suggests a high selectivity of this method for added fluoride. In percolation experiments, the use of Fox reduced considerably the background noise associated with Ftot for the evaluation of fluoride accumulation profiles. Because of its high selectivity and despite incomplete fluoride recovery, the use of Fox to determine fluoride resident concentrations in soils may improve environmental monitoring of fluoride accumulation and movement in contaminated soils.     

A method for determining the phosphorus sorption capacity and amorphous aluminum of aluminum-based drinking water treatment residuals

A high amorphous aluminum or iron oxide content in drinking water treatment residuals (WTRs) can result in a high phosphorus (P) sorption capacity. Therefore, WTR may be used beneficially to adsorb P and reduce P loss to surface or ground water. The strong relationship between acid ammonium oxalate-extractable aluminum (Al(ox)) and Langmuir phosphorus adsorption maximum (P(max)) in WTR could provide a useful tool for determining P(max) without the onus of the multipoint batch equilibrations necessary for the Langmuir model. The objectives of this study were to evaluate and/or modify an acid ammonium oxalate extraction of Al(ox) and the experimental conditions used to generate P adsorption isotherms to strengthen the relationship between Al(ox) and P(max). The oxalate extraction solution to WTR ratio varied from 40:1, 100:1, and 200:1. Batch equilibration conditions were also varied. The WTR particle size was reduced from <2 mm to <150 microm, and batch equilibration was extended from 17 h to 6 d. Increasing the solution to WTR ratio to 100:1 extracted significantly greater Al(ox) at levels of >50 mg Al kg(-1). No additional increase was found at 200:1. Reducing WTR particle size from <2 mm to <150 microm increased P(max) 2.46-fold. Extending the equilibration time from 17 h to 6 d increased P(max) by a mean of 5.83-fold. The resulting empirical regression equation between the optimized Al(ox) and P(max) (r(2) = 0.91, significant at the 0.001 probability level) may provide a tool to estimate the P(max) of Al-based WTR simply by measuring Al(ox). The accurate determination of WTR P(max) and Al(ox) is essential in using WTR effectively to reduce P loss in runoff or to reduce the solubility of P in agricultural soils or organic waste materials (biosolids, manure).     

Drinking water treatment residuals: a review of recent uses

Coagulants such as alum [Al2(SO4)3 x 14H2O], FeCl3, or Fe2(SO4)3 are commonly used to remove particulate and dissolved constituents from water supplies in the production of drinking water. The resulting waste product, called water-treatment residuals (WTR), contains precipitated Al and Fe oxyhydroxides, resulting in a strong affinity for anionic species. Recent research has focused on using WTR as cost-effective materials to reduce soluble phosphorus (P) in soils, runoff, and land-applied organic wastes (manures and biosolids). Studies show P adsorption by WTR to be fast and nearly irreversible, suggesting long-term stable immobilization of WTR-bound P. Because excessive WTR application can induce P deficiency in crops, effective application rates and methods remain an area of intense research. Removal of other potential environmental contaminants [ClO4-, Se(+IV and +VI), As(+III and +V), and Hg] by WTR has been documented, suggesting potential use of WTR in environmental remediation. Although the creation of Al plant toxicity and enhanced Al leaching are concerns expressed by researchers, these effects are minimal at circumneutral soil pH conditions. Radioactivity, trace element levels, and enhanced Mn leaching have also been cited as potential problems in WTR usage as a soil supplement. However, these issues can be managed so as not to limit the beneficial use of WTR in controlling off-site P losses to sensitive water bodies or reducing soil-extractable P concentrations.