IDENTIFICATION OF CRITICAL NONPOINT POLLUTION SOURCE AREAS USING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND WATER QUALITY MODELING1

n integrated approach coupling water quality computer simulation modeling with a geographic information system (GIS) was used to delineate critical areas of nonpoint source (NPS) pollution at the watershed level. Two simplified pollutant export models were integrated with the Virginia Geographic Information System (VirGIS) to estimate soil erosion, sediment yield, and phosphorus (P) loading from the Nomini Creek watershed located in Westmoreland County, Virginia. On the basis of selected criteria for soil erosion rate, sediment yield, and P loading, model outputs were used to identily watershed areas which exhibit three categories (low, medium, high) of non-point source pollution potentials. The percentage of the watershed area in each category, and the land area with critical pollution problems were also identified. For the 1505-ha Nomini Creek watershed, about 15, 16, and 21 percent of the watershed area were delineated as sources of critical soil erosion, sediment, and phosphorus pollution problems, respectively. In general, the study demonstrated the usefulness of integrating GIS with simulation modeling for nonpoint source pollution control and planning. Such techniques can facilitate making priorities and targeting nonpoint source pollution control programs.     

DEVELOPMENT OF A NONDEGRAIATION POLICY FOR HIGH QUALITY WATERS1

ABSTRACT: The development of a nondegradation policy for high quality waters is a complex and often controversial process. This paper discusses the development of a nondegradation policy for two components of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Water quality in these reaches of the Delaware River is threatened by rapid growth and development and the cumulative impacts from numerous wastewater discharges and nonpoint sources of pollution. The Delaware River Basin Commission, with assistance from its member states and the National Park Service, conducted a highly public, six-year planning process to develop a nondegradation policy that protected existing water quality without impinging upon local and state economic development objectives. The resulting non-degradation policy includes such features as numeric definitions of existing water quality and measurable change; stringent point source requirements; nonpoint source requirements including watershed planning requirements; and other water quality management policies.     

OPTIMIZING NONPOINT SOURCE CONTROLS IN WATER QUALITY REGULATION1

ABSTRACT: A stochastic programming framework is developed to evaluate the economic implications of reliability criteria and multiple effluent controls on nonpoint source pollution. An integrated watershed simulation model is used to generate probability distributions for agricultural effluents in surface and ground water resulting from agricultural practices. Results from the planning model indicate that reliability and multiple effluent constraints significantly increase the cost of nonpoint controls but the effects vary by control alternative. The analysis indicates that an evaluation of multiple water quality objectives can be an important planning tool for designing nonpoint source controls for innovative programs to promote cost-effective water quality regulation.     

WATER QUALITY IN AGRICULTURAL,URBAN, AND MIXED LAND USE WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Water quality and nonpoint source (NPS) pollution are important issues in many areas of the world, including the Inner Bluegrass Region of Kentucky where urban development is changing formerly rural watersheds into urban and mixed use watersheds. In watersheds where land use is mixed, the relative contributions of NPS pollution from rural and urban land uses can be difficult to separate. To better understand NPS pollution sources in mixed use watersheds, surface water samples were taken at three sites that varied in land use to examine the effect of land use on water quality. Within the group of three watersheds, one was predominately agriculture (Agricultural), one was predominately urban (Urban), and a third had relatively equal representation of both types of land uses (Mixed). Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, pH, temperature, and streamflow were measured for one year. Comparisons are made among watersheds for concentration and fluxes of water quality parameters. Nitrate and orthophosphate concentrations were found to be significantly higher in the Agricultural watershed. Total suspended solids, turbidity, temperature, and pH, were found to be generally higher in the Urban and Mixed watersheds. No differences were found for streamflow (per unit area), total phosphorus, and ammonium concentrations among watersheds. Fluxes of orthophosphate were greater in the Agricultural watershed that in the Urban watershed while fluxes of TSS were greater in the Mixed watershed when compared to the Agricultural watershed. Fluxes of nitrate, ammonium, and total phosphorus did not vary among watersheds. It is apparent from the data that Agricultural land uses are generally a greater source of nutrients than the Urban land uses while Urban land uses are generally a greater source of suspended sediment.     

CONTINUOUS SIMULATION FOR WATER QUALITY PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: This paper describes a methodology for the evaluation of water quality plans analogous to procedures used in flood control planning, where flood damage frequency curves provide the basis for determining flood control benefits. The proposed method uses continuous water quality simulation to develop long term information from which water quality frequency curves can be obtained. This frequency information allows the evaluation of the impact of proposed water quality control plans taking into consideration the variable nature of the water resource. Using treatment costs and other economic indicators of water quality, the frequency information can be used to estimate the cost-effectiveness and economic efficiency of alternative plans. The method is demonstrated in a semi-hypothetical environment; real hydrologic and climatic characteristics are assigned to a hypothetical watershed configuration. Alternative management plans are simulated and analyzed for both physical and economic impacts. The advantages of continuous simulation and its use in water quality planning are explored.     

A WATER QUALITY‐BASED APPROACH FOR WATERSHED WIDE BMP STRATEGIES1

ABSTRACT: Watershed management strategies generally involve controlling nonpoint source pollution by implementing various best management practices (BMPs). Currently, stormwater management programs in most states use a performance‐based approach to implement onsite BMPs. This approach fails to link the onsite BMP performance directly to receiving water quality benefits, and it does not take into account the combined treatment effects of all the stormwater management practices within a watershed. To address these issues, this paper proposes a water quality‐based BMP planning approach for effective nonpoint source pollution control at a watershed scale. A coupled modeling system consisting of a watershed model (HSPF) and a receiving water quality model (CE‐QUAL‐W2) was developed to establish the linkage between BMP performance and receiving water quality targets. A Monte Carlo simulation approach was utilized to develop alternative BMP strategies at a watershed level. The developed methodology was applied to the Swift Creek Reservoir watershed in Virginia, and the results show that the proposed approach allows for the development of BMP strategies that lead to full compliance with water quality requirements.     

INTEGRATING DIFFUSEINONPOINT POLLUTION CONTROL AND WATER BODY RESTORATION INTO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: The objective of water quality/watershed management is attainment of water quality goals specified by the Clean Water Act. The Total Maximal Daily Load (TMDL) planning process is a tool to set up watershed management. However, TMDL methodologies and concepts have several problems, including determination of Loading Capacity for only low flow critical periods that preclude consideration of wet weather sources in water quality management. Research is needed to develop watershed pollutant loading and receiving waters Loading Capacity models that will link wet and dry weather pollution loads to the probability of the exceedence of water quality standards. The long term impact of traditional Best Management Practices as well as ponds and wetlands, must be reassessed to consider long term accumulation of conservative toxic compounds. Socioeconomic research should focus on providing information on economic and social feasibility of implementation of additional controls in water quality limited watersheds.     

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF RIPARIAN BUFFERS IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: This study determines the most cost effective spatial pattern of farming systems for improving water quality and evaluates the economic value of riparian buffers in reducing agricultural nonpoint source pollution in a Midwestern agricultural watershed. Economic and water quality impacts of alternative farming systems are evaluated using the CARE and SWAT models, respectively. The water quality benefits of riparian buffers are estimated by combining experimental data and simulated water quality impacts of fanning systems obtained using SWAT. The net economic value of riparian buffers in improving water quality is estimated by total watershed net return with riparian buffers minus total watershed net return without riparian buffers minus the opportunity cost of riparian buffers. Exclusive of maintenance cost, the net economic value of riparian buffers in reducing atrazine concentration from 45 to 24 ppb is $612,117 and the savings in government cost is $631,710. Results strongly support efforts that encourage farmers to develop or maintain riparian buffers adjacent to streams.     

RURAL NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION CONTROL IN WISCONSIN: THE LIMITS OF A VOLUNTARY PROGRAM?1

ABSTRACT: This paper examines the relationship between best-management practices, institutional needs, and improved water quality within the watersheds of Wisconsin's program for controlling rural nonpoint source pollution. The first section describes the federal requirements for state nonpoint source programs and the legislative and management methods the state of Wisconsin uses to put those requirements into practice. The emphasis of the paper, described in the second section, is the institutional difficulty in evaluating the success of a large, integrated water quality program. Measurements which are investigated include (1) watershed water quality before and after implementation of BMPs; (2) program participation as measured by eligible vs. participating landowners, BMPs considered necessary vs. BMPs implemented, or dollars allocated to the NPS program vs. dollars expended; and (3) institutional goal coordination and management effectiveness. It is found that, despite the size and sophistication of Wisconsin's NPS program, there is little if any improvement in ambient water quality in these watersheds, probably because of a general lack of adequate participation in this voluntary program.     

Integrating water-quality management and land-use planning in a watershed context

The spatial relationships between land uses and river-water quality measured with biological, water chemistry, and habitat indicators were analyzed in the Little Miami River watershed, OH, USA. Data obtained from various federal and state agencies were integrated with Geographic Information System spatial analysis functions. After statistically analyzing the spatial patterns of the water quality in receiving rivers and land uses and other point pollution sources in the watershed, the results showed that the water biotic quality did not degrade significantly below wastewater treatment plants. However, significantly lower water quality was found in areas downstream from high human impact areas where urban land was dominated or near point pollution sources. The study exhibits the importance of integrating water-quality management and land-use planning. Planners and policy-makers at different levels should bring stakeholders together, based on the understanding of land-water relationship in a watershed, to prevent pollution from happening and to plan for a sustainable future.     

Nonpoint source water pollution abatement and the feasibility of voluntary programs

This article details a case study of a voluntary, decentralized institutional arrangement for nonpint source water pollution control used in the Root River watershed in southeastern Wisconsin. This watershed was chosen because of its mix of urban, agricultural, and urbanizing land uses. The project objectives were to monitor and draw conclusions about the effectiveness of a voluntary, decentralized institutional system, to specify deficiencies of the approach and suggest means to correct them, and to use the conclusions to speculate about the need for regulations regarding nonpoint source pollution control or the appropriateness of financial incentives for nonpoint source control. Institutional factors considered include diversity of land uses in the watershed, educational needs, economic conditions, personality, water quality, number of agencies involved, definition of authority, and bureaucratic requirements     

NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION POTENTIAL IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA1

ABSTRACT: A 155,947 ha portion of the Shenango River watershed in western Pennsylvania was evaluated as to the potential impact of agriculture drainage on water quality. Approximately a third of the area is being used as either cropland or pasture with approximately an equal percentage in forest lands. Eleven subwatersheds were evaluated as to their potential for nonpoint source pollution according to the criteria established by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources for the Chesapeake Bay Pollution Abatement Program. The individual components and overall rating for each subwatershed were then evaluated as to their correlation with four water quality variables based on 104 samples collected at 26 sampling stations throughout the watershed. There was a significant correlation between the overall rating factor for each subwatershed and each of the four water quality variables. In general, the watershed delivery factor, animal nutrient factor, and management factors were correlated with fecal coliform and phosphorus in the receiving streams, whereas the ground water delivery factor appeared to be more important in determining nitrate concentrations in these streams. These results indicate that manure and nutrient management, along with the exclusion of livestock from streams and the enhancement and/or replacement of riparian wetlands, are important approaches in reducing agricultural impacts in fresh water ecosystems.     

INFLUENCES ON RESIDENTIAL YARD CARE AND WATER QUALITY: TUALATIN WATERSHED,OREGON1

ABSTRACT: The Tualatin is the first watershed in Oregon to implement the Total Maximum Daily Load provisions of the Clean Water Act to deal with nonpoint source pollution. Local officials cite residential yard care practices as potential contributors to nonpoint source pollution in the basin. Qualitative and quantitative methods, including observation of yard maintenance styles, suggest behaviors potentially harmful to water quality and conservation. Yard maintenance is influenced by the importance of neighborhood appearance and concern for aesthetics. These concerns stimulate residents to water, fertilize, and apply weed control at more frequent intervals than yard care experts recommend. Better understanding of the effects that relations with neighbors and yard maintenance knowledge have on residential yard care practices can help improve water quality.     

FARMERS’ATTITUDES TOWARD GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN PREVENTING AGRICULTURAL NONPOINT SOURCE WATER POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Concern over the pollution of our lakes and streams has become a major issue in the United States. Sedimentation from sigricultural lands has been identified as a significant factor in water pollution. Some citizens suggest that government should force compliance with soil loss standards, while others suggest that we ask farmers to voluntarily comply. Related questions are “DO farmers think government should be involved in controlling erosion and protecting water quality?”“To what extent should government be involved?” What level of government should be involved? Federal? State? Local?“Why should pay for water quality projects?” Farmers from a small watershed in northeastern Indiana were interviewed before and after a major demonstration project. Their responses suggest that farmers feel that individual landowners should be responsible for controlling erosion and agricultural nonpoint source water pollution. However, over 60 percent of the study fanners indicated that the federal government should play an important role, in terms of both technical and financial assistance.     

WATERSHED BASED,INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPING CLEAN WATER RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT: Access to clean and sufficient amounts of water is a critical problem in many countries. A watershed approach is vital in understanding pollution pathways affecting water resources and in developing participatory solutions. Such integration of information with participatory approaches can lead to more sustainable solutions than traditional “crisis‐to‐crisis” management approaches. This study aims at applying a watershed based joint action approach to manage water resources. Since most watersheds have urban and rural sources of pollution and a wide disparity in access to and use of water, alternative solutions need to take an integrated approach through cooperative actions. An institutional model was applied to seven subwatersheds in Honduras to evaluate various sources and effects of water contamination and water shortages. Two specific pathways of water resources degradation were studied (contamination from coffee pulp manufacturing and urban nonpoint sources) to develop alternative solutions that mitigate downstream impacts of access to clean water. A locally driven joint mechanism to reuse coffee pulp in farming systems is proposed. Such an institutional solution can maximize benefits to both farms and the coffee pulp industry. A combination of education and investment in sanitary facilities in urbanizing areas is proposed to minimize urban sources of water contamination.     

A STRATEGY FOR IMPLEMENTING BMPs FOR CONTROLLING NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION: THE CASE OF THE FEI‐TSUI RESERVOIR WATERSHED IN TAIWAN1

ABSTRACT: This paper describes a concerted effort by the Taiwan Water Resources Bureau, the City of Taipei, and the Bureau of Fei‐tsui Reservoir Management to protect the water quality in the Fei‐tsui Reservoir.The reservoir is the major source of water supply for over two million people in the metropolitan area of Taipei. Over the years the reservoir has suffered from siltation and more recently eutrophication. The sources of the pollution are traced to the hundreds of tea gardens, rice fields and other agricultural areas in the watershed and to urban sources such as construction sites. Large amounts of nutrients enter the reservoir by way of storm water runoff during storm or typhoon events. Since 1999, various agencies have worked to initiate an effort to reduce nonpoint pollution in the Fei‐Tsui Reservoir watershed. Practices being considered include nonstructural measures such as nutrient management, and structural measures such as swales, detention basins, and wetlands, in addition to erosion and sediment control methods. A number of field tests have been completed on the performance of selected best management practices (BMPs). A strategy for implementing the BMPs at the watershed scale has been developed based on a total maximum daily load (TMDL) analysis that is reported in this paper.     

WATER QUALITY SIMULATION AND PUBLIC LAW 92–500 Case Study: Southwestern Illinois1

ABSTRACT: Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 has provided the Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan and Regional Planning Commission (SIMAPC) with a unique opportunity for comprehensive planning of the region's water quality. SIMAPC initiated the 208 study by researching available technology for the analysis of point and nonpoint sources of pollution and establishing criteria by which to judge the various technniques. This led to SIMAPC'S choice of continuous simulation of stream and reservoir water quality as the most appropriate analytical tool for their needs. A continuous simulation model was calibrated and verified on three basins in the SIMPAC region. It was then used to produce load source analysis, pollution event frequency analysis, and pollution event duration analysis for ten pollutants under existing stream conditions and then under alternative future conditions. These results enabled the weighting of pollutant sources, analysis of the effectiveness of control measures, and quantitative analysis of the marginal benefit of each alternative.     

DETERMINING THE SOURCE OF STREAM CONTAMINATION IN A KARST‐WATER SYSTEM,SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA,USA1

ABSTRACT: Karst terrane provides a linkage between surface water and ground water regimes by means of caves, sinkholes and swallets, and sinking streams, and facilitates the inter‐watershed transfer of water and contaminants through these subsurface systems. The goal of this study was to develop procedures to identify the sources of degradation of a creek situated in a complex karst‐water system. The study approach consisted of using dye tracing technique to determine subsurface flow paths through the karst system, a water‐sampling network to identify and characterize pollution sources within the surface watershed and subsurface flow regime, and evaluation of analytical data for several water quality parameters. The results of this study provide an interesting perspective of water and contaminant movement in karst‐water systems and pinpoint the sources of stream contamination for a case study site in southwest Virginia where two springs supply water to a contaminated freshwater stream.     

LAWS AND PROGRAMS FOR CONTROLLING NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION IN FOREST AREAS1

ABSTRACT: Recent federal legislation strengthened nonpoint source pollution regulations and helped to support and standardize pollution control efforts. A comprehensive review of current state and federal programs for forest areas reveals a substantial increase in agency water quality protection activities. These new efforts emphasize monitoring to assess the use and effectiveness of best management practices (BMPs). Recent monitoring reveals that BMP use is increasing and that such use typically maintains water quality within standards. However, information is generally lacking about the cost effectiveness of BMP programs. Carefully designed and executed monitoring is the key to better specification of BMPs and more cost effective water quality protection. (KEY TERMS: water quality; nonpoint source pollution; water law; watershed management; forestry; best management practices.)     

Economic and Ecological Rules for Water Quality Trading1

Horan, Richard D. and James S. Shortle, 2011. Economic and Ecological Rules for Water Quality Trading. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(1):59‐69. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2010.00463.x Abstract: Emissions trading in textbook form uses markets to achieve pollution targets cost‐efficiently. This result is accomplished in markets that regulators can implement without knowing pollution abatement costs. The theoretical promise of emissions trading, along with real‐world success stories from air emissions trading, has led to initiatives to use trading for water pollution control. Yet, trading, particularly when it involves nonpoint sources of pollution, requires significant departures from the textbook concept. This paper explores how features of water quality problems affect the design of markets for water pollution control relative to textbook emissions markets. Three fundamental design tasks that regulators must address for pollution trading to achieve an environmental goal at low cost are examined: (1) defining the point and nonpoint commodities to be traded, (2) defining rules governing commodity exchange, and (3) setting caps on the commodity supplies so as to achieve an environmental target. We show that the way in which these tasks are optimally addressed for water quality markets differs significantly from the textbook model and its real‐world analogs. We also show that the fundamental appeal of emissions trading is lost in the case of realistic water quality markets, as market designs that reduce the costs of achieving water quality goals may no longer be implementable without the regulatory authority having information on abatement costs.