FRESH GROUND WATER STORED IN AQUIFERS UNDER THE CONTINENTAL SHELF: IMPLICATIONS FROM A DEEP TEST,NANTUCKET ISLAND,MASSACHUSETTS1

ABSTRACT: A deep water-resource and stratigraphic test well near the center of Nantucket Island, about 40 miles (64 km) off the New England Coast, has encountered freshwater at greater depth than predicted by the Ghyben-Herzberg principle. An uppermost lens of fresh-water, which occupies relatively permeable glacial-outwash sand and gravel to a depth of 520 ft. (158 m), is probably in hydrodynamic equilibrium with the present level of the sea and the height of the water table. However, two zones of freshwater between 730-820 ft. (222-250 m) and 900-930 ft. (274-283 m) are anomalously deep. A third zone extending from 1150-1500 ft. (350-457 m) contains slightly salty ground water (2 to 3 parts per thousand dissolved solids). Several explanations are possible, but the most likely is that large areas of the Continental Shelf were exposed to recharge by precipitation during long periods of low sea level in Pleistocene time. After the last retreat of glacial ice, seawater rapidly drowned the shelf around Nantucket Island. Since then, about 8000 years ago, the deep freshwater zones which underlie dense clay layers have not had time to adjust to a new equilibrium. Under similar circumstances freshwater may remain trapped under extensive areas of the Continental Shelf wherever clay confining beds have not permitted saltwater to intrude rapidly to new positions of hydrodynamic equilibrium. The implications are far reaching because all continental shelfs were exposed to similar hydrologic influences during Pleistocene time.     

Denitrification potential in relation to lithology in five headwater riparian zones

The influence of riparian zone lithology on nitrate dynamics is poorly understood. We investigated vertical variations in potential denitrification activity in relation to the lithology and stratigraphy of five headwater riparian zones on glacial till and outwash landscapes in southern Ontario, Canada. Conductive coarse sand and gravel layers occurred in four of the five riparian areas. These layers were thin and did not extend to the field-riparian perimeter in some riparian zones, which limited their role as conduits for ground water flow. We found widespread organic-rich layers at depths ranging from 40 to 300 cm that resulted from natural floodplain processes and the burial of surface soils by rapid valley-bottom sedimentation after European settlement. The organic matter content of these layers varied considerably from 2 to 5% (relic channel deposit) to 5 to 21% (buried soils) and 30 to 62% (buried peat). Denitrification potential (DNP) was measured by the acetylene block method in sediment slurries amended with nitrate. The highest DNP rates were usually found in the top 0- to 15-cm surface soil layer in all riparian zones. However, a steep decline in DNP with depth was often absent and high DNP activity occurred in the deep organic-rich layers. Water table variations in 2000-2002 indicated that ground water only interacted frequently with riparian surface soils between late March and May, whereas subsurface organic layers that sustain considerable DNP were below the water table for most of the year. These results suggest that riparian zones with organic deposits at depth may effectively remove nitrate from ground water even when the water table does not interact with organic-rich surface soil horizons.     

In situ ground water denitrification in stratified, permeable soils underlying riparian wetlands

The ground water denitrification capacity of riparian zones in deep soils, where substantial ground water can flow through low-gradient stratified sediments, may affect watershed nitrogen export. We hypothesized that the vertical pattern of ground water denitrification in riparian hydric soils varies with geomorphic setting and follows expected subsurface carbon distribution (i.e., abrupt decline with depth in glacial outwash vs. negligible decline with depth in alluvium). We measured in situ ground water denitrification rates at three depths (65, 150, and 300 cm) within hydric soils at four riparian sites (two per setting) using a 15N-enriched nitrate "push-pull" method. No significant difference was found in the pattern and magnitude of denitrification when grouping sites by setting. At three sites there was no significant difference in denitrification among depths. Correlations of site characteristics with denitrification varied with depth. At 65 cm, ground water denitrification correlated with variables associated with the surface ecosystem (temperature, dissolved organic carbon). At deeper depths, rates were significantly higher closer to the stream where the subsoil often contains organically enriched deposits that indicate fluvial geomorphic processes. Mean rates ranged from 30 to 120 microg N kg(-1) d(-1) within 10 m versus <1 to 40 microg N kg(-1) d(-1) at >30 m from the stream. High denitrification rates observed in hydric soils, down to 3 m within 10 m of the stream in both alluvial and glacial outwash settings, argue for the importance of both settings in evaluating the significance of riparian wetlands in catchment-scale N dynamics.     

THE EFFECT OF RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT ON GROUND‐WATER QUALITY NEAR DETROIT,MICHIGAN1

ABSTRACT: Two water‐quality studies were done on the outskirts of the Detroit metropolitan area to determine how recent residential development has affected ground‐water quality. Pairs of monitor and domestic wells were sampled in areas where residential land use overlies glacial outwash deposits. Young, shallow waters had significantly higher median concentrations of nitrate, chloride, and dissolved solids than older, deeper waters. Analysis of chloride/bromide ratios indicates that elevated salinities are due to human activities rather than natural factors, such as upward migration of brine. Trace concentrations of volatile organic compounds were detected in samples from 97 percent of the monitor wells. Pesticides were detected infrequently even though they are routinely applied to lawns and roadways in the study area. The greatest influence on ground‐water quality appears to be from septic‐system effluent (domestic sewage, household solvents, water‐softener backwash) and infiltration of storm‐water runoff from paved surfaces (road salt, fuel residue). No health‐related drinking‐water standards were exceeded in samples from domestic wells. However, the effects of human activities are apparent in 76 percent of young waters, and at depths far below 25 feet, which is the current minimum well‐depth requirement.     

Hydrogeological relationships of sandy deposits: modeling of two-dimensional unsaturated water and pesticide transport

Prediction of the movement of water and solutes in the vadose zone requires information on the distribution of spatial trends and heterogeneities in porous media. The present study describes different lithofacies origination mainly from glaciofluvial deposits. Among different lithofacies, hydrological relationships were investigated. By means of a two-dimensional hydrological model it was evaluated how the flow of water and leaching of metribuzin (4-amino-6-tert-butyl-4,5-dihydro-3-methylthio-1,2,4-triazin-5-one) was affected. Two selected large outcrop sections consisting of glacial outwash deposits were used in the modeling study. Eleven different lithofacies were distinguished and described in terms of texture distribution, sorting, bedding style, and external boundaries based on excavated soil profiles from 27 locations representing seven predominantly sandy landforms in Denmark. Undisturbed soil columns were sampled from each of the lithofacies and brought to the laboratory to be analyzed. With respect to their soil hydraulic properties, the different lithofacies formed four different hydrofacies having relatively homogeneous, hydrogeological properties. Two large outcrop sections from one of the locations (a gravel pit) located near the terminal moraine of the former Weichsel glacier were used for the HYDRUS-2D modeling. Modeling results revealed that the spatial distribution of sedimentary bodies affected water flow and the leaching of metribuzin.     

FRESH-WATER LENS FORMATION IN AN UNCONFINED BARRIER-ISLAND AQUIFER1

ABSTRACT: Cone-penetrometer testing and computer modeling were utilized to investigate factors controlling fresh-water lens formation at Grand Isle, Louisiana. Measurements of tip resistance, sleeve friction, and electrical conductivity were recorded with depth to permit classification of sediment type and to determine thickness of the fresh-water lens and transition zone. Cone-penetrometer testing provided virtually continuous determinations of change in sediment type and ground-water salinity at a resolution rarely achieved using conventional drilling and water sampling techniques. Three sand bodies are present, each separated by a clay layer. The fresh-water lens is thinner in the center of the island than on the flanks. Fresh-water lens thickness is limited by a clay layer which prohibits downward movement of significant volumes fresh water. The transition zone from fresh water to salt water varies in thickness, being thinnest near the Gulf of Mexico and thickest where silt and clay interfinger with the upper sand. Both the thickness of the fresh-water lens and the shape of the transition zone differ from that predicted by theoretical models. Calibration of STJTRA, a variable-density solute-transport model, indicates that permeability variations are the dominant control on formation of the fresh-water lens.     

RELATIONSHIP OF NITRATE CONCENTRATIONS TO DISTANCE OF WELL SCREEN OPENINGS BELOW CASING WATER LEVELS1

ABSTRACT: Data from 54 well in central and eastern Kansas developed in unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age indicate that nitrate concentrations are inversely related to the depth of the well screen opening below the water level in the well casing because this relationship was found to exist in an area of Nebraska and in a large area of Kansas, the relationship is generally valid over a wide geo- graphical area. In addition, the data indicate that the incidence of nitrate concentrations exceeding 45 milligrams per liter and nitrate concentrations, in general, are significantly lower in water from wells with screens deeper than 25 feet below the water table in unconfined aquifers or where screens are placed in deep confined aquifers. No concentrations of nitrate greater than 45 milligrams per liter were in obseved wells where screens were deeper than 60 feet below the casing water level. These findings suggest that general placement of well screens as far below the water table as possible in unconfined unconsolidated aquifers in Kansas. and possibly other areas of the Midwest, may be an effective measure in preventing undesirable nitrate concentrations in ground water supplies. particularly in areas where nitrate is a problem.     

STABLE PROFILES OF PLUNGE BASINS1

The characteristics of scour holes were discussed including the problems created by them in relation to the hydraulic structures associated with their formation. The philosophy on the design and use of deflector buckets together with the need for plunge basins to dissipate the energy of the high velocity jets were reviewed. Laboratory observations were made to study the erosion of beds of gravel caused by water jets projected from spillway buckets. Flip buckets with 15, 30, 45 and 60 degrees exit angles were utilized. One-quarter inch and %-inch nominal size bed materials were used in the investigation. The gravel was placed in a large comprehensive scour basin to observe their behavior when subjected to the water jets. Besides the formula derived for the maximum depth of scour, a set of dimensionless equations were developed to describe the three-dimensional configuration of scour holes. The dimensions of stable plunge basins could be obtained from these profiles.     

IRRIGATION METHODS AND TRANSPORT OF IMAZAMETHABENZ‐METHYL TO GROUND WATER: GREENFIELDS BENCH,MONTANA1

ABSTRACT: A series of gravel terraces support a shallow aquifer that is the sole source of drinking water for three public water supplies and more than 400 private wells on the Greenfields Bench in west‐central Montana. Farming practices on the Greenfields Bench include irrigation of malting barley and the yearly application of herbicides for the control of weeds. The most commonly used herbicide (imazamethabenz‐methyl, U.S. trade name Assert®) has been found in the ground water on the Greenfields Bench. An experiment was conducted in 2000 and 2001 to characterize the transport of Assert and its acid metabolite to ground water under three irrigation methods: flood, wheel line sprinkler, and center pivot sprinkler. Results show that Assert concentrations in ground water are controlled by hydraulic loading rates of each irrigation method, Assert persistence in soil, hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer, and adsorption/desorption of Assert onto clay particles and organic matter.     

RECOVERY OF “LOST” STORM WATER FROM LOCAL WASH BEDS1

ABSTRACT: Most of the precipitation that falls is unused because it never reaches a stream or recharges an underground supply. This storm water evaporates and is transpired and consumed by plants. Described below are pertinent legal principles and the concept for a small-scale system to capture and store some of this “lost” storm water from the subflow of small gravelly washes that are not part of or connected with a stream system. The subsurface flow is interrupted by an elastomer faced earthen barrier (dam) and stored in a gravel bed. Both the barrier and the gravel storage bed are situated below the surface of the wash bed. If the gravel bed is not underlain by a natural substratum that is relatively impervious, it is either placed on a liner of suitable compacted clay or is underlain with an elastomeric membrane to limit the downward infiltration and loss of the stored water. A system may be used to capture and store sub-flow after surface flow has ceased and during periods of drought; to supply household and irrigation water; to exercise Winters Doctrine rights; and to replace small dams and surface impoundments by underground storage of the captured water to ensure a more reliable and sanitary supply for livestock and wildlife. A system is most effective in desert regions where (or when) both stream and ground water are unavailable; where rainfall is infrequent, but in storms resulting in rapid runoff; and where land surface topography and morphology coincide to form sites that permit the productive use of a system. A system should not be installed without sound legal and hydrological advice. Careful engineering is essential to the safe and proper design of a system, especially its subsurface barrier.     

浅谈利用地下盐穴处理废钻井液

利用地下盐穴进行各种工业废物的埋藏处理目前在国外已得到很好的应用。文章针对油田废钻井液的填埋处理技术,详述了建设盐穴所需要选择的地质条件:必须具有良好的封闭性;造穴方式主要通过水溶洗盐形成地下溶洞;埋藏废物需要通过一系列的特定工艺才能完成;废钻井液埋藏处理后需要进行监测以防止产生污染事故。一般来说,由于地下盐穴埋深大、盐穴封闭性好,具有较高的安全性。利用盐穴进行废钻井液的埋藏具有费用低、容量大、占地少、安全性高等优点。     

Geomorphological and geophysical approach for locating favorable groundwater zones in granitic terrain, Andhra Pradesh, India

The increasing demand for fresh water has necessitated the exploration for new sources of groundwater, particularly in hard rock terrain, where groundwater is a vital source of fresh water. A fast, cost effective and economical way of exploration is to study and analyze remote sensing data. Interpreted remote sensing data was used to select sites for carrying out surface geophysical investigations. Various geomorphologic units were demarcated and the lineaments were identified by interpretation of remote sensing satellite images. The potential for occurrence of groundwater in the watershed areas was classified as very good, good, moderate and poor by interpreting the images. Sub-surface geophysical investigations, namely vertical electrical soundings, were carried out to delineate potential water-bearing zones. Integrated studies of interpretation of geomorphologic and geophysical data were used to prepare a groundwater potential map. The studies reveal that the groundwater potential of shallow aquifers is due to geomorphologic features and the potential of deeper aquifers is determined by lineaments such as faults and joints.     

THE DEPENDENCE OF THE RESIDUAL GRAVITY ON HYDRAULIC CONSTANTS IN GLACIAL DEPOSITS1

ABSTRACT: Buried glacial stream channels contain large and easily accessible groundwater resources. Gravity surveys have been frequently applied for their location. A gravity survey in the geohydrologically explored Wood River Valley Area of southern Rhode Island shows extreme lows of -2 mgals over channel depths of maximal 300 feet. Three gravity profiles were observed in east-west direction across a north-south striking stream channel. The bedrock depth increases rapidly towards the south from 130 to 300 feet. The gravity lows observed across each profile are not related to the bedrock depth but rather to the saturated thickness of the main quifer and its hydraulic transmissivity. Well logs indicate that the large change of bedrock depth is solely due to an increase of till of low permeability. The volume of the glacial outwash, which is the major groundwater resource, changes little underneath the three profiles. The gravity lows apear to be directly related to the density contrast between glacial outwash and till. The response to the hydraulically more pertinent units renews the interest in the gravity method as it may have a potential to estimate yields of hydrologically complex aquifers     

DEEP WELL DISPOSAL OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT IN DADE COUNTY,FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: Data were obtained from drilling and testing of a test injection well for deep underground injection of waste water effluent from the proposed 50-million-gallon-per-day (mgd) South District Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant of the Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority, Dade County, Florida. The drilling operation progressed in stages, each stage coverting the strata to be sealed off by the 48-inch, 40-inch, 30-inch, and 20-inch casings, respectively. Total depth of the well is 3,200 feet. The top of the saline, cavernous, dolomitic Boulder Zone was found at 2,790 feet below the surface and is separated from the Floridan aquifer above by approximately 1,100 feet of confining limestone layers. These confining layers were determined, by packer testing, to be very effective. The transmissivity of the Boulder Zone was estimated to be 14 × 10⁶ gallons per day per foot (gpd/ft) from the data obtained from pump out tests. An 8,000-gallon-per-minute (gpm) injection test was conducted to confirm well performance under operating conditions. Based on all of the data obtained, it was concluded that underground injection into the Boulder Zone of secondary waste water effluent from the proposed treatment plant is feasible, both hydraulically and environmentally. A monitoring system was proposed to provide a record of the effects of injection on the subsurface environment.     

Clonal Re-Introduction of Endangered Plant Species: The Case of German False Tamarisk in Pre-Alpine Rivers

The scope of re-introduction as a measure for plant species protection is increasing, but as long as no standardized methods are available, species-specific assessments are necessary to determine whether seeds, adult plants or plant fragments should be used. The endangered German False Tamarisk (Myricaria germanica), which occurs on gravel bars along pre-alpine rivers, is difficult to grow from seeds. Thus, propagation of stem cuttings was investigated as an alternative method. Experiments were conducted in a greenhouse and a field site with three treatments: cutting length 5 or 10 cm, vertical burial 5 or 10 cm, and water level low or high. Plants grown in the greenhouse were transplanted to the River Isar to test establishment of rooted cuttings on gravel bars. The cuttings in the greenhouse showed high survival (34-96 %). Survival and biomass production were greatest for 10-cm cuttings buried at 10-cm depth, while only one of the 5-cm cuttings survived at this depth, and no significant effect of variation in water level was observed. None of the cuttings transplanted to field sites survived, most likely because of drought stress and competition. We conclude that for re-introduction of Myricaria germanica rooted cuttings can be easily produced in large quantities, while transplantation to near-natural environments has to be improved to reduce mortality.     

DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERFORATED PIPE FOR USE IN INFILTRATION TRENCHES1

ABSTRACT: Infiltration trenches are an effective stormwater management alternative for the control of urban runoff from small areas. Perforated pipes buried within the gravel of an infiltration trench are used to distribute the inflowing runoff along the length of the trench. Laboratory tests are described that characterize the hydraulics of the orifices in perforated pipes. The results show that the steady-state exfiltration of water from the pipe into a surrounding gravel trench can be described by the orifice equation.     

CX170-1井钻井废水及废钻井液处理技术

CX170-1井位于川西平原,周围良田环绕。文章就川西地区钻井作业现状提出了比较可行的钻井废水及废钻井液无害化处理工艺技术。针对钻井废水,详细介绍了轻度污染废水;严重污染废水和特殊作业废水的处理工艺及处理效果。对于废钻井液,该井主要采用了固化处理。结果表明:经固化处理的废钻井液干结后具有一定强度,失去了水敏性,不再具有返浆性。浸泡实验表明,有害物得到了比较彻底的固定,经检测,各种污染指标大都低于国家一级标准,自然条件下外排的废钻井液不再对环境造成污染。     

STREAMBED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY FOR RIVERS IN SOUTH‐CENTRAL NEBRASKA1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents hydraulic conductivities of streambeds measured in three rivers in south‐central Nebraska: the Platte, Republican, and Little Blue Rivers. Unlike traditional permeameter tests in streams that determine only the vertical hydraulic conductivity (K_v), the extended permeameter methods used in this study can measure K in both vertical and horizontal as well as oblique directions. As a result, the anisotropy of channel sediments can be determined from streambed tests of similar sediment volumes. Sandy streambeds with occasional silt/clay layers exist in the Republican and Platte Rivers. The average K_v values range from about 15 to 47 m/day for the sandy streambed and about 1.6 m/day for the silt/clay layers. Statistical analyses indicated that the K_v values of sand and gravel in the Platte and Republican Rivers essentially have the same mean; but the K_v values from the Little Blue River have a statistically different mean. K_v is about four times smaller than the horizontal hydraulic conductivity (K_h) for the top 40 cm of sandy streambed. Measured K_h values of the sandy streambed are in the same magnitude as the K_h of the alluvial aquifer determined using pumping tests. The smaller K_v value in the whole aquifer is the result of interbedded layers of silt and clay within the sand and gravel sediments.     

APPLICATION OF THE PEBBLE COUNT NOTES ON PURPOSE,METHOD, AND VARIANTS1

ABSTRACT: The pebble count procedure (Wolman, 1954) is the measurement of 100 randomly selected stones from a homogeneous population on a river bed or bar, which yields reproducible size distribution curves for surficial deposits of gravel and cobbles. The pebble count is widely used in geomorphologr (and increasingly in river engineering) to characterize surficial grain size distributions in lieu of bulk samples, for which adequate sample sizes become enormous for gravels. Variants on the original method have been proposed, one of which, the so-called ‘zig-zag’ method (Bevenger and King, 1995), involves sampling along a diagonal line and drawing data points from many different geomorphic units. The method is not reproducible, probably because it incorporates stones from many different populations, and because an inadequate number of grains is sampled from any given population. Sampling of coarse bed material should be geomorphically stratified based on the natural sorting of grain sizes into distinct channel features. If a composite grain size is desired, the areas of the bed occupied by different populations can be mapped, pebble counts conducted on each, and a weighted average distribution computed.     

Green roof stormwater retention: effects of roof surface, slope, and media depth

Urban areas generate considerably more stormwater runoff than natural areas of the same size due to a greater percentage of impervious surfaces that impede water infiltration. Roof surfaces account for a large portion of this impervious cover. Establishing vegetation on rooftops, known as green roofs, is one method of recovering lost green space that can aid in mitigating stormwater runoff. Two studies were performed using several roof platforms to quantify the effects of various treatments on stormwater retention. The first study used three different roof surface treatments to quantify differences in stormwater retention of a standard commercial roof with gravel ballast, an extensive green roof system without vegetation, and a typical extensive green roof with vegetation. Overall, mean percent rainfall retention ranged from 48.7% (gravel) to 82.8% (vegetated). The second study tested the influence of roof slope (2 and 6.5%) and green roof media depth (2.5, 4.0, and 6.0 cm) on stormwater retention. For all combined rain events, platforms at 2% slope with a 4-cm media depth had the greatest mean retention, 87%, although the difference from the other treatments was minimal. The combination of reduced slope and deeper media clearly reduced the total quantity of runoff. For both studies, vegetated green roof systems not only reduced the amount of stormwater runoff, they also extended its duration over a period of time beyond the actual rain event.