气候变化条件下的气候移民问题及对策分析

气候变化及其不利影响所导致的现实或潜在的大量气候移民,成为了21世纪人类社会面临的严峻挑战,正日益受到各国政府和国际社会的高度重视和广泛关注。通过对人类社会现实和历史发展进程中,诸种气候变化形式导致的气候移民现象及其概念的剖析;对气候移民数量规模不断攀升、波及区域持续扩大、临时性迁移向永久性移民持续演变、多种因素叠加交织下气候移民问题日趋复杂化等亟需关注与解决的问题进行了透视。针对气候移民问题,提出了加强国际合作、致力减缓与主动适应并举、在国际社会建立应对政策与治理机制和管理机构、降低气候移民的社会脆弱性等对策建议。以期为有效破解气候移民难题,化解气候移民面临的各种社会风险,促进社会的良性运行与协调发展做出初步探索     

气候风险视域下气候移民的迁移机理、现状与对策

在全球气候变化的总体背景下,全球变暖、冰川融化等渐变缓发性气候风险与干旱、洪涝等极端突变灾害性气候风险发生的概率进一步增大,其不利影响所导致的现实或潜在的大量气候移民已成为21世纪人类社会面临的严峻挑战。结合已有的研究文献对历史时期、工业革命以来,气候变化导致气候风险加剧、气候灾害频发突发与环境变迁相互作用,导致的人口迁移、人口分布变化和政治、文化、经济中心变更的机理逻辑展开分析。以把握现阶段气候移民数量不断攀升、波及区域持续扩大、临时性迁移向永久性移民持续演变、多种因素叠加交织下气候移民问题日趋复杂化的演变发展态势。并针对气候移民现状及其发展趋势,提出了需制定国际气候移民法、加强国际合作、致力减缓与主动适应并举、在国际社会建立应对政策与治理机制和管理机构、降低气候移民的社会脆弱性等对策建议。以期为有效破解气候移民难题,化解气候移民面临的各种社会风险,促进社会的良性运行与协调发展做出初步探索。     

气候变化条件下的气候工程移民问题及对策分析

气候变化及其不利影响所导致的大量气候移民,已成为21世纪人类社会所面临的严峻挑战。气候变化条件下人类实施了宏、微观气候工程以应对逐渐恶化的自然生存条件,并促生了大量气候工程移民。通过对气候工程移民的概念界定和类型划分,剖析气候工程实施给移民造成的次生贫困化、社会适应度降低等影响;对气候工程移民实施中存在的调地困难安置难度大、补偿标准低、生计模式骤然转变、社会资本流失等问题进行了透视。为此提出提高补偿标准增加土地熟化投资、持主导产业加大后扶力度、培育移民可持续发展能力、更新移民观念完善社会保障制度、关注移民社会结构特殊性促动移民社会适应等对策建议。     

气候变化影响下的气候移民人力资本损失与重构——以宁夏中南部干旱地区为例

在全球气候变化加速发展的背景下,极端气候和气候灾害频发,对人类生命财产安全的威胁日益加剧,并深刻影响着人类的生存和发展。中国是受气候变化负面影响最为严重的国家之一,近年来气候灾害的频率和强度不断增加,致灾原因交错而复杂,引致的受灾人口规模和经济损失不断扩大,伴随的经济与社会问题突出。为应对气候变化的不利影响,中国近些年来开始实施宏大的生态和气候移民规划。在气候移民搬迁安置过程中,气候移民的生计发展是面临的重点和难点问题。但目前针对极端气候影响下的人口迁移安置问题无论是理论研究还是实践经验都仍然十分欠缺。人力资本在可持续生计资本要素中处于核心地位,是影响气候移民生计方式和生活水平的最关键因素。根据对宁夏中南部干旱地区的田野调查与分析,本文深入研究气候变化对移民人力资本的影响机制及其带来的生计损失,发现气候移民原本羸弱的人力资本在持续干旱气候影响下加速贬损,原有农业生产经验的失灵、务工技能的短缺、营养不良以及传染性疾病的威胁等因素阻碍了气候移民的生计恢复和可持续发展。研究表明,人力资本的提升是实现气候移民生计可持续发展最根本最有效的手段,因此政府部门、移民家庭、社会组织等利益相关主体应当通力协作,重视通过加强疾病防治和提升健康水平、保证基础教育和鼓励职业教育、重视技能培训和提升技能水平、普及公共服务和促进社会融合等多种途径重构气候移民的人力资本,以促进气候移民生计可持续发展。     

中国应对气候变化的战略进程与角色转型:从防范“黑天鹅”灾害到迎战“灰犀牛”风险

全球气候治理对于气候风险的认识一直在不断发展。国际气候谈判启动伊始,主导力量呼吁各国根据"共同但有区别的责任"原则积极进行温室气体减排,致力于防止出现难以预料但影响巨大的"黑天鹅"式的气候灾害。而当前各国减排力度与全球温控目标仍存在明显的差距,人类社会极有可能面临的大概率、影响大的"灰犀牛"式的气候风险。中国曾多次面临极端气候事件,但在新中国成立之后陆续建设的各类基础设施,提升了全社会应对自然灾害和气候灾害的能力及水平。从国际社会输入国内的对全球性气候变化的认知,强化了中国对灾变性气候"黑天鹅"事件的防范意识。随着中国工业化和城市化进程的推进,气候变化可能导致的自然灾害成为严重威胁中国可持续发展的"灰犀牛"风险。在这种认识转变的背景下,中国应对气候变化的战略进程,经历了灾害防范、科学参与、权益维护、发展协同和贡献引领5个阶段。中国气候战略转型的主要原因在于化石能源燃烧所排放的二氧化碳总量的快速攀升、经济发展水平和能力的增强,以及中国生态环境面临的严峻压力。面对全球性的气候变化问题,中国不仅从自身情况出发去积极应对,也在为全球安全做出贡献。当前,国内深化推进生态文明建设,对气候变化的态度已经转为主动积极去迎战具有"灰犀牛"属性的气候变化风险。中国应对气候变化的国家战略,已经转变为强化国内行动完善中国特色的"中国方案",在国际主动引领国际气候进程,迎战威胁人类未来的气候风险。     

气候容量:适应气候变化的测度指标

本文提出将"气候容量"概念作为适应气候变化的核心测度,并论述了与此相关的气候资源承载力、生态承载力、水资源承载力、土地承载力、人口承载力等概念。气候容量是针对全球气候和环境变化背景下提出的概念,从根本上讲,中国适应气候变化是气候容量问题,即一个地区特定气候资源所能够承载的自然生态系统和人类社会经济活动的数量、强度和规模。气候容量包括天然容量和衍生容量,天然容量包括温度、光照、降水、极端气候事件等因子,衍生容量包括水资源、土地资源、生态资源、气候灾害风险等要素。气候容量可以借助工程、技术、制度等适应措施进行改善和转移,但是必须遵循经济理性、生态完整性、风险防护、公平分配等原则。对气候容量及其阈值的评估能够与气候变化风险评估相结合,测算出不同气候变化情景下的最优人口容量和社会经济发展规模,为社会经济发展战略和适应规划提供决策支持。在气候容量充裕的地区,适应气候变化是与人口和经济发展相伴生的问题;而在气候容量严重受限地区,不合理的发展可能进一步恶化气候环境。作者以气候容量充裕的长三角地区和气候容量严重短缺的西部地区为例,分析了气候容量的政策含义,并针对容量限制型的适应问题与发展驱动型的适应问题提出了具体建议。气候容量不仅可以作为气候变化经济学的概念分析工具,而且可以结合气候变化影响和风险评估,为制定地区适应与发展规划提供研究支持。     

气候变化移民:极端气候事件与适应——基于对2010年西南特大干旱农村人口迁移的调查

国际上对气候因素引致人口迁移的直接关联性和重要程度一直存在争议.2010年我国西南地区遭受的特大千旱给探索极端气候事件和气候变化移民之间的复杂关系提供了研究背景.在此特大干旱影晌下,当地农村居民是否、以及怎样采用迁移的方式来应对?本文以2010年8-9月在受灾严重的云南省昆明市寻甸县所进行的田野调查为基础,揭示了特大干旱背景下当地农村人口的迁移行为及特征.调研结果表明在所调查的村组并未因此极端气候事件而引起大规模的气候变化移民活动,无论是暂时的还是永久的.为了解释灾后当地农村人口的迁移选择,本文引入“气候变化一人口迁移响应”的基本理论框架模型,考虑公共和私人两个层面的作用,对当地政府、村集体和农户自身的灾后适应行为进行深入分析和效果评价.结果表明在公共层面的各类帮扶和救助下,农户自身亦采取了多样化的适应措施,两个层面适应行为的共同作用缓解了特大干旱给农户生计带来的压力,使得农户家庭成员的迁移并不成为必须的选择.     

环境、气候变化和人口迁移

2009年12月哥本哈根国际气候变化会议召开,再次引发人们对全球气候变化的关注。环境、气候变化引起的人类迁移活动近年来逐步为人们所重视,但我国环境、气候变化和人口迁移方向的专项研究还相对较少。在回顾国际相关文献的基础上,本文对该领域的热点及难点问题做了梳理。除了对环境、气候变化移民概念和分类的讨论外,当前该领域的研究主要集中在以下几方面:一是在全球、国家或是地区层面上对迁移人口数量的估算,回答环境、气候变化对人口迁移影响到底有多大的问题。二是探析环境、气候变化和人口迁移之间的相互关系,特别是在环境恶化、气候变化导致人口迁移的机理研究方面。三是对相关政策响应的研究,比如如何应对环境恶化和气候变化对人口迁移的挑战、在国际和国家层面应如何制定考虑环境和气候变化因素的人口迁移管理政策等。通过介绍环境、气候变化和人口迁移方向现有国际研究趋势,揭示现存研究难点,展望未来研究前景,本文试图对我国开展该方向的研究有所启示。     

适应气候变化的分析框架及政策涵义

适应气候变化与发展议题密切相关,这也使得适应成为一个过于宽泛的命题,影响了对适应内涵的理解。首先,本文基于国内外对适应问题的探讨,提出了适应气候变化的基本分析框架,即基于不同发展阶段的适应需求,区分增量型适应和发展型适应,并通过工程性适应、技术性适应和制度性适应三种适应手段增强适应能力。增量型适应是指在系统现有基础上考虑新增风险所需的增量投入,这种适应所针对的是发展需求基本得到满足,仅仅需要应对新增的气候风险所需的适应活动;发展型适应是指由于发展水平滞后,使得系统应对常规风险的能力和投入不足,需要协同考虑发展需求及新增的气候风险。其次,分析了适应的四个基本步骤,即:①评估气候风险及脆弱性;②甄别各种可能的适应对策;③选择可行的适应措施;④推荐"成功"的适应行动。还介绍了相应的社会经济分析方法,如脆弱性评估、社会经济影响评估、适应的成本效益分析等。最后,基于中国适应气候变化的基本需求及优先领域,提出了相应的政策建议,如开发农业适应技术、加强流域综合治理、开展健康风险监测、实施灾害保险计划等。     

资源节约型与环境友好型社会技术选择及其创新激励机制的比较研究

建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会要求必须强化技术创新的“选择”意识，除传统的经济效率标准外，还要以生态效率与其它社会价值为基准来选择技术发展的方向。基于此，特提出技术剖新选择的评价标准。并认为，当前生态化技术创新面临的主要障碍是缺乏恰当的激励机制，从而导致企业的长远发展以及人类社会的可持续发展与企业短期生存压力之间的矛盾难以化解。运用博弈论的方法比较了当前各种激励方式下社会整体帕累托最优的存在性问题。结果表明，单纯对生态化产品价格进行补贴并不能使企业生态化技术创新的程度达到社会帕累托最优的程度，创新投资补贴能直接降低企业生态化技术创新所面临的风险，因此具有更好的激励效果。     

Migration drivers in mountain regions in the context of climate change:A case study in Shangnan County of China

Climate change has become widely accepted as a challenge that humans will face in the not-too-distant future.Mountain ecosystems and their inhabitants are among the most vulnerable to climate change.This paper seeks to explain migration drivers in specific mountain regions in the context of climate change based on Foresight’s conceptual framework.A climate change sensitive field named Shangnan County in southern Shaanxi Province is chosen as the case study area to investigate local migration drivers.A series of qualitative research methods is employed in the case study including participant observation,semi-structured interviews,and focus group discussions.The evidence of survey suggests that migration decisions are not only shaped by macro factors in aspects of environmental,economics,demographic,social,politics and psychological,but also influenced by placed-related barriers and facilitating mechanisms and personal characteristics.     

中国水资源管理适应气候变化的研究综述

以全球变暖为特征的气候变化已成为当今科学界、各国政府和社会公众普遍关注的最重要议题之一。气候变化对水资源管理的影响是具有重要学术价值的新兴研究方向,目前的重点研究领域主要包括:气候变化背景下水资源综合管理方式与集成研究,气候变化下水资源适应性管理机制,中国面临的水资源均衡性管理,公众参与水资源适应性管理的政策制定,对减缓措施与水资源可持续发展的认识。主要的研究方法包括:适应气候变化的定性分析方法(多尺度适应综合分析方法)、成本效益分析方法等。适应性管理是目前应对气候变化伴随的不确定性问题的有效策略,未来应在分析中国各流域水资源不确定性问题的基础上,建立气候变化情景下适应气候变化的水资源适应性管理体制机制。     

走向更为积极的气候变化政策与管理

我国目前应对气候变化的策略表现为：将气候变化政策视为可持续发展政策的一部分；在参与全球气候变化的国际协议方面有着鲜明立场；重视气候变化方面的科学研究；把气候变化问题作为环境外交的重要部分；努力吸引公众参与等方面。但在政策的制定和执行中仍缺乏应有的积极性、主动性和前瞳性。我国的气候变化治理结构存在的问题主要包括：缺乏明确的决策机构和执行机构。科学研究对政策制定的支持能力不足，公众参与薄弱．企业减缓气候变化的动力不足。针对这些问题．提出了以“走向更为积极的气候变化政策与管理”为核心的改进治理结构的政策建议。     

Towards a new climate economics:research areas and prospects

International cooperation to address climate change now stands at a crossroads.With a new international regime for emissions reduction established by the Durban Platform, "New Climate Economics(NCE)" has become a research hotspot.The need for urgent action to combat climate change has prompted discussion on reforms of economic growth patterns and the energy system.The industrial civilization,therefore,now faces a transition towards a new pathway for ecological sustainability.NCE explores new economic concepts,theories,and analytical methods to design a balanced pathway for sustainable growth and emission reduction.Instead of getting trapped in discussions on allocation of emission reduction responsibilities and obligations among countries,NCE pays more attention to developing win-win multilateral cooperation mechanisms that facilitate collaborative RD and knowledge sharing.In addition,NCE studies incentives for low-carbon transition,turning carbon emission reduction into a domestic need for countries to increase their international competitiveness.To achieve the 2°C target,most countries around the world face challenges of insufficient emission allowances to cover expected emissions associated with their projected economic growth.As carbon emissions rights becomes an increasingly scarce resource,increasing the carbon productivity of the economy turns to be the critical path to address the dilemma of green or growth.NCE studies the historical evolution of carbon productivity for countries at different development stages as well as ways to enhance such carbon productivity.This type of study provides invaluable lessons for emerging economies to reach their own emission peaks without losing the momentum of growth.Replacing fossil fuels with new and renewable energy has proven to be an inevitable choice for reshaping the energy system and addressing climate change- it has already become a global trend.NCE studies incentives for new energy technology innovation and deployment provided by carbon pricing,and sheds light on the co-benefits of climate change mitigation,such as resource conservation,environmental protection,and energy security.The role of carbon pricing in promoting intemational RD cooperation and technical transfer will also be studied.The shift in consumption patterns is another key factor enabling a low-carbon transformation.Therefore,NCE also explores the theoretical work on new values of wealth,welfare and consumption,new lifestyles in the context of ecological civilization,concepts and implementation of low-carbon urban planning in developing countries,and the impacts of consumption pattern changes on social development,material production,and urban infrastructure construction.     

Pros and cons of climate change in China

Climate change strongly affected the structure and functions of natural ecosystems, e.g. the vegetation productivity decreased in the Northeast permafrost region due to the higher temperature and less precipitation, whereas in the Tibetan Plateau, the vegetation productivity increased, owing to the improved thermal resource. Climate change led to reduced precipitation in North and Northeast China and thus the reduced surface runoff. The public needs for energy were changed because of climate change, e.g. the shorter heating period in winter. Climate change profoundly influenced human health, pathophoresis and major projects by increasing extreme events, including frequency and magnitude, and causing more serious water shortage. Under the background of climate change, although the improved thermal resources can be helpful for extending the crop growth period, more extreme events may resulted in more instability in agricultural productivity. Not only did climate change indirectly affect the secondary and tertiary industries through the impacts on agriculture and natural resources, but also climate change mitigation measures, such as carbon tax, tariff and trading, had extensive and profound influences on the socioeconomic system. Further analysis indicated that the impact of climate change presented significant regional differences. The impact had its pros and cons, while the advantages outweighed the disadvantages. Based on the above analysis on the impacts of climate change, we put forward suggestions on coping with climate change. First, scientifically dealing with climate change will need to seek advantages while avoiding the disadvantages of climate change in order to achieve the orderly adaptation to climate change, which is characterized with “Overall best, long-term benefit.” Second, quantitative adaptation should be given more attention, e.g. proposing operational schemes and predictable goals and using uncertainty analysis on adaptation measures. Third, more active coping strategy should be adopted to enhance China’s future comprehensive competitiveness. The strategies include but are not limited to gradually adjusting the industrial structure, intensifying the research and development (R&D) of emission reduction technology and actively responding to the influence of carbon tax, tariff and trading on socioeconomic development in China.     

Pros and cons of climate change in China

Climate change strongly affected the structure and functions of natural ecosystems,e.g.the vegetation productivity decreased in the Northeast permafrost region due to the higher temperature and less precipitation,whereas in the Tibetan Plateau,the vegetation productivity increased,owing to the improved thermal resource.Climate change led to reduced precipitation in North and Northeast China and thus the reduced surface runoff.The public needs for energy were changed because of climate change,e.g.the shorter heating period in winter.Climate change profoundly influenced human health,pathophoresis and major projects by increasing extreme events,including frequency and magnitude,and causing more serious water shortage.Under the background of climate change,although the improved thermal resources can be helpful for extending the crop growth period,more extreme events may resulted in more instability in agricultural productivity.Not only did climate change indirectly affect the secondary and tertiary industries through the impacts on agriculture and natural resources,but also climate change mitigation measures,such as carbon tax,tariff and trading,had extensive and profound influences on the socioeconomic system.Further analysis indicated that the impact of climate change presented significant regional differences.The impact had its pros and cons,while the advantages outweighed the disadvantages.Based on the above analysis on the impacts of climate change,we put forward suggestions on coping with climate change.First,scientifically dealing with climate change will need to seek advantages while avoiding the disadvantages of climate change in order to achieve the orderly adaptation to climate change,which is characterized with"Overall best,long-term benefit."Second,quantitative adaptation should be given more attention,e.g.proposing operational schemes and predictable goals and using uncertainty analysis on adaptation measures.Third,more active coping strategy should be adopted to enhance China's future comprehensive competitiveness.The strategies include but are not limited to gradually adjusting the industrial structure,intensifying the research and development(RD)of emission reduction technology and actively responding to the influence of carbon tax,tariff and trading on socioeconomic development in China.     

Adapting cropping systems to climate change in Nepal: a cross-regional study of farmers’ perception and practices

Climate change is a global challenge that has a particularly strong effect on developing countries such as Nepal, where adaptive capacity is low and where agriculture, which is highly dependent on climatic factors, is the main source of income for the majority of people. The nature and extent of the effects of climate change on rural livelihoods varies across Nepal in accordance with its highly diverse environmental conditions. In order to capture some of this variability, a comparative study was performed in two different ecological regions: Terai (lowland) and Mountain (upland) in the western development region of Nepal. The study focuses on perceptions of, and on adaptations to climate change by farmers. Information was collected from both primary and secondary data sources. Climate data were analyzed through trend analysis. Results show that most farmers perceive climate change acutely and respond to it, based on their own indigenous knowledge and experiences, through both agricultural and non-agricultural adaptations at an individual level. The study also shows that there is a need to go beyond the individual level, and to plan and provide support for appropriate technologies and strategies in order to cope with the expected increasing impacts of climate change.     

Climate change: an amplifier of existing health risks in developing countries

Global warming is perceived as one of the biggest global health risks of the twenty-first century and a threat to the achievement of sustainable (economic) development; especially in developing countries, climate change is believed to further exacerbate existing vulnerability to disease and food security risks, because their populations are, for example, more reliant on agriculture and more vulnerable to droughts and have a lower adaptive capacity. Furthermore, the health-related impacts of climate change are threatening to undo decades of development policies. The interactions between climate and non-climate factors are of vital importance in shaping human vulnerability to global warming. Climate change cannot be seen as ‘a stand-alone risk factor,’ but rather as an amplifier of existing health and food security risks and an additional strain on institutional infrastructures. In order to avoid a multiplication of health risks in the developing world, there is a need to better understand the multifaceted and complex linkages involved. This is further illustrated for two important climate change–induced health risks, namely malnutrition and malaria. As the amplification of existing and emerging health risks in the developing world might become the greatest tragedy of climate change, adaptation ranks high on developing countries’ agendas. Of particular importance are the discussions about the ‘Green Climate Fund,’ which aims to administer billions of dollars for mitigation and adaptation. Of course, making funds for adaptation available is an important first step, but we also need to ask ourselves the question how such adaptation policies and projects should take shape. This paper demonstrates that an adequate response to climate change health risks should take a systems approach toward adaptation, acknowledging the importance of the local context of the most vulnerable.     

Using Expert and Non-expert Models of Climate Change to Enhance Communication

Climate change is a significant global risk that is predicted to be particularly devastating to coastal communities. Climate change adaptation and mitigation have been hindered by many factors, including psychological barriers, ineffective outreach and communication, and knowledge gaps. This qualitative study compares an expert model of climate change risks to county administrators' “mental” models of climate change and related coastal environmental hazards in Crystal River, Florida, USA. There were 24 common nodes in the expert and the combined non-expert models, mainly related to hurricanes, property damage, and economic concerns. Seven nodes mentioned by non-experts fit within, but were not a part of, the expert model, primarily related to ecological concerns about water quality. The findings suggest that effective climate outreach and communication could focus on compatible parts of the models and incorporate local concerns to find less controversial ways to discuss climate-related hazards.