Ecosystem services and hydroelectricity in Central America: modelling service flows with fuzzy logic and expert knowledge

Because ecosystem services are generally not produced and used in the same place, their assessment should consider the flows of services from ecosystems to users. These flows depend on the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems and users, the spatial relationships between them, and the presence of filters or barriers between ecosystems and users. The objective of this paper is to map the ecosystem services provided to the Costa Rican and Nicaraguan hydroelectric sectors, which are crucial sectors for national sustainable development and depend directly on hydrological ecosystem services. The paper presents an approach for modelling the flows of multiple services from diverse ecosystems to diverse users through different kinds of filters in a landscape. The approach uses expert knowledge and fuzzy numbers to handle uncertainties. The analyses for Costa Rica and Nicaragua show how the approach helps identify priority areas for the conservation and restoration of forests for the services they provide to the hydroelectric sector. As such, it is a useful tool for defining spatially targeted policies for the conservation of ecosystem services and for involving the users of ecosystem services in ecosystem management.     

Exploring socio-cultural values of ecosystem service categories in the Central Alps: the influence of socio-demographic factors and landscape type

The socio-cultural assessment of ecosystem services has been proposed as a promising tool for eliciting people’s preferences towards ecosystem services. Despite an increasing integration of the socio-cultural perspective in ecosystem service research, little knowledge exists about linkages between landscape and the socio-cultural values people assign to ecosystem services. This paper combines a socio-cultural valuation approach with the use of landscape pictures to analyse and compare people’s perceived importance of the provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem service categories across three landscape types (i.e. larch meadows, spruce forests, and hay meadow). A survey with 470 tourists visiting the region of South Tyrol (Italy) was conducted to link people’s perceived importance to their socio-demographic background and to the landscape types explored. The results show that regulating ecosystem services are preferred over provisioning and cultural services, whereby environmental awareness is found to be more influential than formal education levels regarding the perceived importance of regulating services. The results further demonstrate that cultural background is an important driver in determining people’s perceived importance of cultural services. The underlying landscape types, however, exert an even stronger influence on people’s socio-cultural valuation of ecosystem service categories. This finding suggests that the focus of most ecosystem services assessments on the study area as a whole risks mistakenly attributing differences in people’s socio-cultural values to socio-demographic characteristics only. A better knowledge of the spatial integration of socio-cultural values, however, could help with anticipating the consequences of changes in the landscape and provide better guidance for future landscape planning.     

Economic valuation of Shadegan International Wetland,Iran: notes for conservation

Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on the earth. They produce various market and non-market goods and services, which have a significant role in human welfare. Despite the great opportunities from sustainable development, wetlands all over the world are under serious threat from a diverse range of non-sustainable activities. One of the major reasons for excessive depletion and the conversion of wetland resources is due to underestimating the non-market values of wetlands during development decisions. Shadegan International Wetland (SIW) in southern Iran is one of these wetland areas that is threatened by undervaluation and overexploitation from commercial activities. This study utilizes the contingent valuation method to estimate the economic benefits of SIW from the view point of peoples’ willingness to pay (WTP). The logit model was defined based on dichotomous choice to measure individuals’ WTP. The estimated mean WTP was US$ 1.74 per household as a onetime donation. This study concludes that the benefits of SIW to society could encourage managers to set priorities to ensure that the health of the ecosystem, its integrity, and its uniqueness would be conserved in a proper manner.     

Forests and global change: what can genetics contribute to the major forest management and policy challenges of the twenty-first century?

The conservation and sustainable use of forests in the twenty-first century pose huge challenges for forest management and policy. Society demands that forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, from timber products, raw materials and renewable energy to sociocultural amenities and habitats for nature conservation. Innovative management and policy approaches need to be developed to meet these often-conflicting demands in a context of environmental change of uncertain magnitude and scale. Genetic diversity is a key component of resilience and adaptability. Overall, forest tree populations are genetically very diverse, conferring them an enormous potential for genetic adaptation via the processes of gene flow and natural selection. Here, we review the main challenges facing our forests in the coming century and focus on how recent progress in genetics can contribute to the development of appropriate practical actions that forest managers and policy makers can adopt to promote forest resilience to climate change. Emerging knowledge will inform and clarify current controversies relating to the choice of appropriate genetic resources for planting, the effect of silvicultural systems and stand tending on adaptive potential and the best ways to harness genetic diversity in breeding and conservation programs. Gaps in our knowledge remain, and we identify where additional information is needed (e.g., the adaptive value of peripheral populations or the genetic determinism of key adaptive traits) and the types of studies that are required to provide this key understanding.     

Ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation under forestation scenarios: options to improve management in the Vez watershed,NW Portugal

Ensuring forest protection and the delivery of forest ecosystem services is a central aim of the European Union’s biodiversity strategy for 2020. Therefore, accurate modelling and mapping of ecosystem services as well as of biodiversity conservation value is an important asset in support of spatial planning and policy implementation. The objectives of this study were to analyse the provision of the multiple ecosystem services under two forestation scenarios (eucalyptus/pine vs. oak) at the watershed scale and to evaluate their possible trade-offs with the biodiversity conservation value. The Vez watershed, in northwest Portugal, was used as case study area, in which soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) was applied to simulate the provision of hydrological services, biomass and carbon storage services. Biodiversity conservation value was based on nature protection regimes and on expert judgement applied to a land cover map. Results indicated large provision of ecosystem services in the high and low mountain sub-basins. The overall performance for water quantity and timing is better under the shrubland and oak forest scenarios, when compared to the eucalyptus/pine forest scenario, which perform better for flood regulation and erosion control services, especially in the low mountain sub-basin. The current shrubland dominated cover also shows good performance for the control of soil erosion. The oak scenario is the one with less trade-offs between forest services and biodiversity conservation. Results highlight SWAT as an effective tool for modelling and mapping ecosystem services generated at the watershed scale, thereby contributing to improve the options for land management.     

Governance objectives and instruments,ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation: the Chianti case study

The complex relationships between governance processes, ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation are receiving growing attention by the scientific community. The scope of research in this field is generally that of identifying main governance factors leading to success or failure in the sustainable management of ecosystems and biodiversity conservation, so to develop appropriate sectoral and intersectoral policies fostering sustainable use of natural resources. In this paper, a methodological approach is first presented and then applied to analyse the impacts of agriculture and rural policies on agro-ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation in the central hills of Tuscany, the Chianti area. This approach is focusing in particular on governance objectives and instruments used in the management of ecosystem services. A share-farming system based on multifunctional agriculture ruled Chianti until World War II. Then, after the abandonment of rural areas by share-farmers, governance objectives and ecosystem management were oriented towards the production of commodities such as wine and olive oil almost ignoring the provision of public goods such as soil erosion and water run-off control and biodiversity conservation. In order to achieve a more sustainable ecosystems management in Chianti, there is the need to develop a multifaceted governance strategy to reward appropriately the supplying of environmental goods and services by farmers.     

水源地生态补偿标准估算——以贵阳鱼洞峡水库为例

鱼洞河是乌江水系的一个小支流,为下游贵阳市提供饮用水水源。在鱼洞河上下游之间建立生态补偿机制,理论上需要知道上游治理污染和维护生态环境的费用,以及下游对上游提供的生态环境服务的支付意愿。只有下游的支付意愿大于上游的费用,上下游之间的生态补偿机制才有理论可能性。在对上游龙里县汇水区进行实地调研后,重点评估了当地安装沼气系统、坡耕地(≥25°)退耕还林、其他地区的土壤侵蚀防治以及点源污染治理费用,得出上游治理投资费用为199万元,年度费用每年89.2万元-168万元。采用意愿调查法(CVM)对贵阳市自来水用户对上游环境服务的支付意愿进行了评估。采用简单随机抽样方法在贵阳3个区内选取了900户作为样本,结果表明,有62.7%的人愿意为生态补偿付费。采用PROBIT模型,可以计算出为避免鱼洞河水质恶化的支付意愿均值为0.37元/m3,贵阳市自来水用户总的支付意愿每年达847万元。结果表明在鱼洞河水源地进行上下游生态补偿理论上是可能的,补偿标准介于上游费用与下游支付意愿之间。     

VALUING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES OF CHILEAN TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS

The Valdivian Rainforest Ecoregion (35°–48° S) in southern South America is among the ecosystems with highest conservation priority worldwide due to its rich diversity, degree of endemism, and critical conservation status. Temperate rainforests in this vast area are essential as source of biological resources and to maintain different ecosystem services which remain largely unmeasured and unvalued. Consequently, the benefits they provide are not reflected in decision-making regarding forest management and conservation. Based on existing studies and results from ongoing research we describe selected ecosystem services and provide estimates of their economic value. Timber benefits for secondary forests expressed as net present stumpage values were US$ 3742 ha⁻¹ and US$ 3093 ha⁻¹ for sustainable forest management (SFM) and unsustainable harvesting, respectively. Timber benefits for old growth forests␣equaled US$ 4546 ha⁻¹ and US$ 5718 ha⁻¹, for SFM and unsustainable harvesting, respectively, using an 8% discount rate. Annual benefits from recreation were US$ 1.6 ha⁻¹ and US$ 6.3 ha⁻¹ for the two most important national parks located in the study area. The annual value of maintaining soil fertility was US$ 26.3 ha⁻¹ using the replacement cost of nutrient losses due to soil erosion. The annual economic value of water supply for human consumption using the production function method was US$ 235 ha⁻¹. These results provide valuable information on the kind and magnitude of values that could be relevant in decision-making concerning conservation and management of native forests in the Valdivian Rainforest Ecoregion.     

南方丘陵山地带土壤保持功能及其经济价值时空变化特征

土壤保持是生态系统提供的重要调节服务之一,在区域侵蚀控制以及生态安全的维持方面具有不可替代的作用。以全国主体生态功能区划中"两屏三带"的南方丘陵山地带为研究对象,在遥感和地理信息系统的支持下,以2000、2005和2010年3期生态系统类型数据为主要数据源,运用通用土壤流失方程(Universal Soil Loss Equation, USLE)分析了南方丘陵山地带生态系统土壤保持功能,并对其经济价值进行动态核算。结果表明:10 a间,南方丘陵山地带土壤保持总量呈上升趋势,土壤保持总量上升了76.79×10⁷ t,森林、灌丛和农田生态系统是研究区土壤保持功能的主要贡献者,总贡献率3个年份分别为82.29%、82.59%和80.58%,不同生态系统土壤保持总量排序为森林> 灌丛> 农田> 草地> 湿地> 人工表面> 稀疏地,土壤保持能力排序为湿地> 草地> 灌丛> 森林> 农田> 人工表面> 稀疏地;10 a间,研究区土壤保持功能总经济价值增加了270.34×10⁸元,总经济价值中以保持土壤肥力价值为主;土壤保持功能经济价值的变化以轻微增加为主,其呈现增加的区域面积和价值增幅大于经济价值减少的区域面积和价值减幅。在对该区域生态系统进行保护的基础上,因地制宜地合理增加植被盖度对防治土壤侵蚀、保持土壤养分可以起到良好效果。     

Agricultural adjustment,population dynamics and forests redistribution in a subtropical watershed of NW Argentina

Patterns of land-use and land-cover change are usually grouped into one of two categories defined by the dominant trend: (1) deforestation resulting from expanding agriculture and (2) forest expansion, usually related to the abandonment of marginal lands. At regional scale, however, both processes can occur simultaneously even in the absence of net change. Given the focus on net change, such redistribution of agricultural and natural and seminatural lands has been generally overlooked. The interaction between agriculture modernization, human demography and complex topographic gradients of northwestern Argentina has resulted in processes of both forest recovery and deforestation, thus providing the opportunity to analyze patterns and driving forces of land-cover redistribution. We analyzed 20 years (1986–2006) of land-cover change in a subtropical watershed in relation to topographic and demographic variables. Although net forest change represented <1 %, forests redistribution affected 7 % of forest lands. There was a consistent geographic segregation of deforestation and forest recovery, with forests expanding over steep highlands and agriculture expanding over lowland irrigated areas. Population trends were not associated to forest expansion in lowlands but they explained 32 % of forest recovery in highlands. Highland forest expansion and lowland deforestation, respectively, imply conservation opportunities for humid montane forests and the environmental services they provide (e.g., watershed conservation) and threats for the conservation of dry forests and its biodiversity. Our study exemplifies the importance of land-use redistribution (rather than net change) with relevant environmental consequences at regional scale.     

Biodiversity provides ecosystem services: scientific results versus stakeholders’ knowledge

Exploiting the complementarities between biological components in agricultural systems is presented as a solution to increase food production and decrease environmental problems. This amounts to maximizing the ecosystem services (i.e., the benefits human obtain from ecosystems) provided by biodiversity at the expense of the disservices (i.e., the nuisances human obtain from ecosystems). In recent years, science has produced significant results supporting this strategy, but their application in the field is dependent on stakeholders’ knowledge. This article therefore addresses two questions: What do stakeholders know about the services and disservices provided by biodiversity? Does this knowledge agree with scientific results? We address these questions by combining a literature review of 39 scientific articles and interviews with 8 farmers and 3 farm advisors in France. Scientific results and stakeholders’ knowledge both indicate that within- and between-field plant biodiversity have a positive effect on the provision of ecosystem services. For instance, it can reduce inputs and give higher and more stable plant production. It may even improve farmers’ management conditions. However, our work revealed two gaps in our scientific knowledge. Only 3 scientific articles connected ecosystem services with plant biodiversity at the farm scale or between fields, while stakeholders did so for 43 % of the services they mentioned. Similarly, management services concerned about one-third of the services mentioned by stakeholders but were addressed in only 3 scientific articles. Stakeholders’ expertise can thus help us to prioritize research options in order to simultaneously fill scientific gaps and produce knowledge relevant to practice.     

基于Meta回归方法的中国城市森林生态系统服务功能价值再评估

在综合国内若干城市生态系统服务功能价值研究实例的基础上,构建了中国城市森林生态系统服务功能价值转移数据库和相应的Meta回归分析模型,对价值转移评估的影响因素进行了全面探讨,并对该模型的样本外价值转移的有效性进行了检验.研究结果表明:(1)中国城市森林生态系统服务功能的平均价值为5.868 万元/hm2·a,按照价值高低排序依次为:涵养水源＞固碳释氧＞保育土壤＞生物多样性保护＞净化大气环境＞森林游憩＞积累营养物质,且总体呈现出西部地区＞东部地区＞中部地区的区位分布特征;(2)城市森林生态系统服务功能的评估方法、类型因素,城市的区位、人口、经济因素和研究区面积因素都是影响城市森林生态系统服务功能价值变化的主要因素;(3)所构建的Meta价值转移模型的样本外价值转移的平均转移误差为18.54％,用于研究样本外价值转移估计的有效性较好.     

Hierarchical priority setting for restoration in a watershed in NE Spain, based on assessments of soil erosion and ecosystem services

Maintaining and enhancing ecosystem services through the restoration of degraded ecosystems have become an important biodiversity conservation strategy. Deciding where to restore ecosystems for the attainment of multiple services is a key issue for future planning, management, and human well-being. Most restoration projects usually entail a small number of actions in a local area and do not consider the potential benefits of planning restoration at broad regional scales. We developed a hierarchical priority setting approach to evaluate the performance of restoration measures in a semiarid basin in NE Spain (the Martín River Basin, 2,112 km²). Our analysis utilized a combination of erosion (a key driver of degradation in this Mediterranean region) and six spatially explicit ecosystem services data layers (five of these maps plotted surrogates for soil retention and accumulation, water supply and regulation, and carbon storage, and one plotted a cultural service, ecotourism). Hierarchical maps were generated using a geographic information system that combined areas important for providing a bundle of ecosystem services, as state variables, with erosion maps, as the disturbance or regulatory variable. This was performed for multiple scales, thereby identifying the most adequate scale of analysis and establishing a spatial hierarchy of restoration actions based on the combination of the evaluation of erosion rates and the provision of ecosystem services. Our approach provides managers with a straightforward method for determining the spatial distribution of values for a set of ecosystem services in relation to ecological degradation thresholds and for allocating efforts and resources for restoration projects in complex landscapes.     

兼顾生态系统功能和生态需求强度的城市生态用地重要性评价——以长沙市为例

生态环境保护和城市经济发展的矛盾由来已久，科学评价生态用地的重要性，对维护区域生态安全和引导城市有序扩张具有重要意义。生态用地的重要性不仅由生态用地自身的生态系统功能决定，同时受到人类生态需求强度的影响。选取生物多样性维持功能、土壤保持功能、水源涵养功能、户外休闲需求和生态用地稀缺度等指标，以长沙市中心城区为研究区，构建了兼顾生态系统功能和区域生态需求强度的生态用地重要性评价模型，进行了生态用地重要性评价。其中，生态系统功能通过生物多样性维持功能、土壤保持功能、水源涵养功能量化，区域生态需求强度通过户外休闲需求和生态用地稀缺度量化。实验结果表明：长沙市中心城区生态用地空间分布差异显著，极重要生态用地主要由大面积集中连片的森林、重要饮水源地和高质量的耕地构成，既包括城市外围提供生态屏障的大块生态用地，同时包括人口稠密城市建成区内的湿地、河流等小面积生态用地。与传统评价模型相比，构建的模型能够体现人类需求的影响，结果更符合人们的实际生态需要。     

三峡库区建坝前后森林生态系统服务动态

基于六期Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI影像数据，利用生态系统服务功能评估规范及GIS空间统计方法，对三峡库区1990~2015年间森林生态系统服务价值动态变化进行分析。结果表明：三峡库区森林面积与森林覆盖率逐年增加，森林面积增长率71.04%，森林覆盖率由31.27%增加到53.48%。库区整体的森林类型结构比较稳定，表现为针叶林>混交林>灌木林>阔叶林。时间上，三峡库区森林生态系统服务价值呈上升趋势，具体表现为快-慢-快的增长特征。三峡库区单位面积森林生态系统服务价值在总体增长趋势下出现局部负增长趋势，各森林类型的单位面积价值与三峡库区整体的单位面积价值有着相同的变化趋势，均表现为增加-减少-增加的变化特征。三峡库区各类型服务价值的贡献表现为：涵养水源>固碳释氧>生物多样性保护>保育土壤>净化大气环境>积累营养物质>森林防护。空间上，1990~2015年，三峡库区森林生态系统服务价值的地域分布大致以巫溪至武隆一线为界，呈现出东南高、西北低的特征。1990~2015年三峡库区森林生态系统服务价值变化幅度呈现出“西增加快，东增趋缓”的格局特点。     

Impacts of business-as-usual management on ecosystem services in European mountain ranges under climate change

Mountain forests provide a multitude of services beyond timber production. In a large European project (ARANGE—Advanced multifunctional forest management in European mountain RANGEs), the impacts of climate change and forest management on ecosystem services (ES) were assessed. Here, we provide background information about the concept that was underlying the ARANGE project, and its main objectives, research questions, and methodological approaches are presented. The project focused on synergies and trade-offs among four key ES that are relevant in European mountain ranges: timber production, carbon storage, biodiversity conservation, and protection from gravitational natural hazards. We introduce the concept and selection of case study areas (CSAs) that were used in the project; we describe the concept of representative stand types that were developed to provide a harmonized representation of forest stands and forest management in the CSAs; we explain and discuss the climate data and climate change scenarios that were applied across the seven CSAs; and we introduce the linker functions that were developed to relate stand- and landscape-scale forest features from model simulations to ES provisioning in mountain forests. Finally, we provide a brief overview of the Special Feature, with an attempt to synthesize emerging response patterns across the CSAs.     

Characteristics of Carbon Storage and Density in Different Layers of Forest Ecosystems

Characteristics of carbon storage and density in different layers of forest ecosystems should be studied comprehensively and in more detail. Using forest inventory data in combination with field survey data, we explored the characteristics of carbon storage and density in different layers of forest ecosystems in Liaoning Province of China. Results showed that total carbon storage was 813.034 Tg C. The carbon storage of soil layer accounted for 81.0% of the total storage with 658.783 Tg C, followed by those of arbor, litter and shrub layers with 128.403 Tg C (15.8%), 22.723 Tg C (2.8%) and 3.125 Tg C (0.4%), respectively. The average carbon density for the forest ecosystems were 183.571 Mg C ha^–1, with soil layer (148.744 Mg C ha^–1) being the highest one, followed by arbor layer (28.992 Mg C ha^–1), litter layer (5.131 Mg C ha^–1) and shrub-grass layer (0.706 Mg C ha^–1). Carbon storage in different forest ecosystems varied from 1.595 to 319.161 Tg C, while C density ranged from 165.067 to 235.947Mg C ha^–1, with the highest and lowest values being observed in soil layer and shrub-grass layers, respectively, implying that soil is the main body of forest carbon storage. Young-aged forests accounted for a greater proportion of forests in the Province than forests in other age classes; and proper management of forests could increase the carbon sequestration in the forest ecosystems. The comparison with previous estimations of carbon storage for forest ecosystem implied that methods and data used for forest carbon storage estimation affected the results of estimates obviously.     

Designing conservation-development policies for the forest frontier

The conservation of forests in expanding frontier landscapes is critically important to maintain intact forest ecosystems and support forest dependent communities. To conserve frontier forests, policy approaches are needed that conserve forests and advance the well-being of local resource dependent communities. To identify such approaches, the forest conservation and development framework (FCDF) was designed to find place-based conservation-development policies that target system leverage-points influencing land-use practices. To demonstrate the utility of the FCDF, a portfolio of conservation-development policies were identified for Peru’s Manu-Tambopata Corridor (MAT) and evaluated by local land-users. Results of the MAT case study show high levels of interest in the proposed policies, but a wide variation in interest levels relative to personal circumstances and policies proposed. Barriers to implementing conservation-development policies in frontier environments were also identified, including high value land-use alternatives generating high opportunity costs for accepting PES payments (e.g., REDD+), insecure land tenure and conflicting authorizations limiting land-users policy choices, and broad demographic diversity among local land-users. Collectively, this research suggests the FCDF is a useful approach for identifying policies matched to local conditions that advance conservation and human development. This research also indicates policy design in frontier environments is most effective when adapted to local conditions, seeks to identify a mix of complementary policies, and is targeted at key system variables influencing land-use practices (i.e., system leverage-points). Importantly, the MAT case study also highlights how even in rapidly changing frontier landscapes, land-users are interested in policies that advance conservation and development goals.     

Landowner perceptions of the value of natural forest and natural grassland in a mosaic ecosystem in southern Brazil

The forest–grassland mosaics of southern Brazil have been subject to many land use and policy changes over the decades. Like many grasslands around the world, the Campos grasslands are declining with few conservation efforts underway. In contrast, forests receive much attention and many incentives. It is hypothesized that perception of land cover has the potential to shape ecosystems. Here we conduct a questionnaire to further our understanding of decision-making practices that alter landscapes (Campos grassland, Araucaria forest, agriculture and plantation) and direct land policies in the region. Our analysis reveals that plantations are significantly less desirable than the other landscape types. However, plantation land use has increased by 87 % over the past few decades, as a result of industry and government incentives. The proportions of other landscape types have remained consistent over the past two decades. Restoration of native vegetation is not a priority of landowners and restoration would require a financial incentive.     

Forest sustainability and development in hills of Uttarakhand,India: Can they move together?

Forest cover is viewed as a resource for the nation as it provides ecosystem services. However, it becomes a burden and retards development for the people of the area, particularly the hills, where such forests flourish. Enactment of stringent laws over the past few decades has strictly prohibited tree felling in these areas, and it has become a deterrent in their growth process. While on one hand, the plains are abuzz with economic activity, on the other hand, the sparse population of the hills is compelled to bear the responsibility of maintaining ecological balance. In this context, the issue of development along with forest sustainability becomes important. Using the case study of the hills of Uttarakhand, India, the paper attempts to highlight the problems and the possible strategies that may be adopted to facilitate inclusive socioeconomic development of forest dwellers while ensuring conservation and enhancement of forest cover.